Mümtaz Çolak

Presence and Distribution of Lithium in Borate Deposits and Some Recent Lake Waters of West-Central Turkey

The presence and distribution of lithium, which is used in a variety of applications in current technology and will be a strategic component in near future technology, has been investigated within the scope of some of Turkeys borate and non-borate Neogene basins and recent lakes. Clay samples from the Turkish borate deposits, Soma lignite basin, and Beypazari trona basin, and water samples from Acigöl, Salda, Yarisçi, Burdur, Egirdir, Tersakan, Bolluk, Karapinar (Acigöl), and Tuzgölü lakes were studied. Analytical results show that the lithium values obtained from clays of borate deposits vary between 0.17 and 0.58% Li2O, and lake water samples contain between 0.30 and 325 mg/l Li+. Lithium is mostly bounded in the clay minerals at the borate deposits. While, the Beypazari trona deposit has lithium between 10 and 46 ppm, the Soma lignite basin does not contain lithium. Therefore, lithium is mainly related to evaporatic formations. These lithium amounts indicate that both the waters of Tuzgölü lake and the clays associated with borate deposits are potential lithium resources, and that they may be considered for economic use in the near future. In western Turkey, geothermal sources mostly depend on the graben faulting system; they also contain minor amounts of lithium.

The Effects of Colemanite Deposits on the Arsenic Concentrations of Soil and Ground Water in Igdeköy-Emet, Kütahya, Turkey

The hydrochemical study of the area surrounding the Hisarcık (Emet-Kütahya) colemanite mine shows extremely high arsenic contamination in ground water between 0.07 to 7.754 mg L-1. This contamination in and around the Igdeköy village of Emet was caused by naturally occurring arsenic dissolution from a borate bearing clay zone due to the leaching of arsenic bearing minerals. The arsenic concentration in the ground water varies locally from spring to spring and is related to the mineralogical and geochemical compositions and lithofacies of the contaminant aquifer. The Neogene borate-bearing clay unit, which contains some arsenic minerals such as realgar (AsS) and orpiment (As2S3) observed in colemanite (Ca2B6O11⋅5H2O) nodules, is responsible for the arsenic contamination in ground waters in the study area. Soil geochemical analyses show unremarkable concentrations, varying from <0.01 to 7.11 mg kg-1.

Hydrogeochemical and hydrogeological investigations of thermal waters in the Emet area (Kütahya, Turkey)

Metamorphic rocks host the majority of the thermal waters of the Emet area. Only Dereli springs are hosted by nonmetamorphic carbonates and ophiolitic rocks. The carbonated rocks of the lower parts of the Neogene sequence are also secondary reservoir rocks. The measured surface temperatures of thermal waters are between 33 and 54 C. Most of the thermal waters are characterized as Ca–Mg–SO4–HCO3 type although there are a few Ca–Na–HCO3, Na–Ca– SO4 and Ca–Mg–HCO3 waters. Calcium concentrations in the thermal waters are 89–354 mg/kg. High SO4 contents of the thermal waters (up to 1309 mg/kg) are related to rocks and minerals in the Red Unit below the Emet borate deposits. Although the SO4 concentrations are high and SO4 is the major anion, gypsum and anhydrite are undersaturated for all of the thermal waters indicating that dissolution of SO4 is still taking place in the reservoir. Thermal waters are oversaturated at outlet conditions with respect to calcite, chalcedony, dolomite and quartz. According to the activity diagrams thermal waters are likely to form illite as an alteration product in the reservoir and Ca and Mg contents are controlled by exchange with smectite. Reservoir temperatures obtained by silica geothermometers and assessments of the saturation states of minerals are more appropriate for Emet geothermal waters. Assessments of the various geothermometers suggest that reservoir temperature is around 75–87 C.

SAPONITE FROM THE EMET COLEMANITE MINES, KÜTAHYA, TURKEY

Clay mineralogy and whole-rock chemistry of the borate-bearing layers of the Hisarcik and Esbey mines were examined. The Hisarcik clays occur as laminated or unlaminated clay layers with sharp contacts. Unlaminated layers contain quartz derived from metamorphic rocks and carbonate fragments in a clay matrix, and are interpreted as reworked tuffs deposited in playa-lake environments. An important feature is that the unlaminated clays contain little MgO (3–15 wt. %) as compared with the laminated clays (15–30 wt. %). As previous studies have shown, the clay fraction of the studied profile contains predominantly Li-bearing saponite, and accounts for 60–90 wt. % of the clay fraction (<2 μm). Illite in the clay fraction varies from 0 to 67 wt. % and the average illite percentage never exceeds 40 wt. %. Chlorite is scarce (2–5 wt. %). Illite-smectite interstratified clays (illite at 70%, smectite at 30%) were only found in low concentrations in the laminated clay layers of the upper limestone unit (above the borate zone), where illite-2M of detrital origin is also present. The Esbey clays occur interstratified with colemanite layers and envelope colemanite nodules. Calcite is the major mineral of the clays whereas quartz, plagioclase, feldspar, colemanite, and cahnite are minor components. The MgO contents vary between 4.70–13.95 wt. % in the clays interstratified with colemanite layers, between 7.24–11.89 wt. % in the enveloping clays, and between 10.27–21.25 wt. % in clays located above the colemanite zone. The composition of the clay fraction (<2 μm) in all samples is similar. Smectite represents between 40–90 wt. % of the clay fraction in the upper portion of the stratigraphic profile and decreases towards the lower part of the stratigraphic profile. Smectite always occurs with illite which may vary from 20 to 90 wt. % of the clay fraction, and a small amount of kaolinite and chlorite. Illite-2M polytype is abundant. The d(060)-reflection position suggests that the smectite minerals from the Hisarcik and Esbey colemanite mines contain both dioctahedral and trioctahedral smectites to form a transitional zone. These smectites are a product of a magnesium-rich alkaline playa-lake environment.

Durability assessments of rare green andesites widely used as building stones in Buca (Izmir), Turkey

Abstract Miocene volcanism was active in the city area of İzmir, Turkey, where volcanic deposits formed predominantly made of gray and pinkish colored andesite. These rocks have been widely used in the construction of many buildings in the region. In the northern part of Izmir, known as the Buca region, there is an area where andesite presents green color. The occurrence of the green andesite is rather rare, and historically this rock type has been used in the construction of ancient valuable architectonic structures including aqueducts, historical buildings, and mosques. Some of these structures date back to the beginning of the first century AD when the region was under the control of the Roman Empire. Interestingly, the recent survey of these structures showed that after all of these years, the green andesite still appears pretty much well preserved, only showing slight deterioration in the form of limited crumbling. Although these rocks were used in this particular region in the past, their material properties have not been investigated so far. The purpose of this study was therefore to identify mineralogical, chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of these rocks, which eventually determine their durability. The first phase of the research focused on detailed site investigation, which resulted in the definition of the geological extent of the green andesite and the identification of two historical quarries, from one of which representative samples was collected for laboratory investigation, which was the main task of the second phase of the research. The main cause for the green color of the andesite resulted the presence of celadonite, which is also accompanied by cristobalite. The presence of cristobalite in the pores as a secondary mineral appears to have contributed to the increased strength and durability of Buca andesite. Laboratory evaluation of the durability was in general agreement with field observations, although some test gave ambiguous results. This discrepancy revealed some weakness of laboratory tests to precisely assess durability of building stones.

Hydrogeochemical study of the gümüşköy spa (Aydin) and its vicinity

Gümüşköy Kaplıcası Batı Anadolu Bölgesi’nde Büyük Menderes Grabeni’nin güneybatı kısmında yer almaktadır. İnceleme alanındaki termal suların kaynak çıkış sıcaklıkları 20-36 °C, pH değerleri 6.4-7.5 ve elektriksel iletkenlikleri (EC) 2000-11230 μS/cm arasındadır. Termal sular genel olarak Na-Cl su tipindedirler. Jeotermal sistemin rezervuar kayaçları Menderes Masifi’nin karstik mermerleri ve çatlaklı şist birimleridir. Neojen’in geçirimsiz birimleri jeotermal sistemin örtü kayalarını oluşturmaktadır. Sistemin ısı kaynağı ise tektonizmaya bağlı yüksek jeotermal gradyandır. Termal sular Giggenbach Diyagramı’na (1988) göre çoğunlukla ham sular sınıfındadır ve kimyasal jeotermometrelerle hesaplanan rezervuar sıcaklıkları 55-114 °C arasında değişmektedir. Ölçülmüş sıcaklıklardaki mineral doygunlukları, termal sularda genellikle kalsit, aragonit ve dolomit minerallerinin çökel oluşturduğunu gösterir. Suların jips, anhidrit, sölestin ve barit minerallerini ise çözündürücü özellikte oldukları görülmektedir. Termal suların üretim ve iletim hatlarında ve atık suların reenjeksiyonu sırasında kalsit, aragonit ve dolomit minerallerinin kabuklaşma riski oluşturacağı belirlenmiştir. Silis mineralleri ise kinetik özelliklerinden dolayı amorf silis özelliğinde çökelebilir. Gümüşköy Spa is located in southwest of the Büyük Menderes Graben in Western Anatolia. The thermal waters of the area have spring temperatures of 20-36 °C, pH of 6.4-7.5 and EC of 4960 to 5079 μS/cm. Water type of thermal waters is generally Na-Cl type. Reservoir rocks of geothermal systems are marble and fissured schist units of Menderes Massif. Impermeable units of Neogene are the cap rocks of geothermal systems. Heat source of system is also geothermal gradient connected with tectonism. According to Giggenbach Diagram (1988), thermal waters mostly fall into the immature fields and reservoir temperatures vary between 55-114 °C. Mineral saturation in outlet temperatures indicates that calcite, aragonite, and dolomite minerals are generally oversaturated in the thermal waters. However, it is seen that the thermal waters is undersaturated with gypsum, anhydrite, celestite, and barite. It is determined that calcite, aragonite and dolomite minerals will be created scaling risk in production and conduction line of the thermal waters and during the reinjection of waste water. Silica minerals may also precipitate amorphous silica due to kinetic properties.

Golden mica cooking pottery from Gökeyüp (Manisa), Turkey

Abstract Gökeyüp cooking pottery is a particular type of pottery produced according to ancient craft tradition in western Turkey. It is made by mixing 75 wt% of local red and green smectitic clays with 25 wt% of local gneissic temper. Both temper and tempered objects are rich in MgO, as can be seen from XRF analyses. The vessels are coated with a sheet-silicate enriched layer, corresponding to the <2 mm sieved fraction of the crushed gneissic temper. The pottery is fired for 45 min using the bonfire technique. Apart from the dehydroxylation of the smectites, no clear mineralogical difference can be observed between the unfired and fired products. The reduction factor FeO/FeOtot reveals no significant oxidizing or reducing firing conditions. As evidenced by SEM-EDS analyses, there is no chemical difference between the unfired and externally fired micas of the coating. The golden colouring is therefore due to the oxidation of the biotites during firing.

Refractory Olivine Bricks Application from the Ağla-Köyceğiz (Turkey) Dunite

Suitability of the Ağla-Köyceğiz dunites for manufacturing olivine bricks was assessed by addition of the Kümaş fine sintered magnesia in 10, 20, 30 and 40% proportions. The average value of MgO for Ağla dunites is around of 46wt.%. Magnesium sulphate was used as a chemical binder and gets good resistance to the mixes before firing. High Fe2O3 content of the Ağla dunites help to sintering process. Addition of the sintered magnesia and magnesium sulphate to the mixes increases MgO/SiO2 ratio. Phase composition, bulk density and cold crushing results at 1625oC show that these mixes are not mature ceramic. Introduction Shaped and unshaped basic refractories, based on main oxide component are produced worldwide for lining furnaces. Refractory products to be installed in industrial furnaces are selected according to their properties. The properties of refractory products depend on the principal minerals and their distribution. High purity raw materials are preferred in order to decrease the amount of low melting minor constituents and to avoid the formation of lowviscosity eutectics in the brick [1]. Refractory olivine bricks show a high resistance against alkalies and iron containing slags. To produce refractory olivine bricks, finely ground magnesia is added to the olivine grains to convert the SiO2 and the FeO of the decomposed fayalite into forsterite and MF-spinel [1]. The aim of the present work is to assess the suitability of the Köyceğiz-Ağla (Turkey) dunites for manufacturing shaped olivine bricks with addition of powdered sintered magnesia from Kümaş-Kütahya (Turkey) by magnesium sulphate binder. Addition of the sintered magnesia and Mg-sulphate binder must achieve a high refractoriness of the Köyceğiz-Ağla dunites. The new products were characterized by densification study, phase analysis and cold strength at 1600oC. Materials and Methods Raw materials. Köyceğiz-Ağla dunites is located in the Lycian Nappes tectonically stacked pile, which is flanked the southern margin of the Menderes Massif (Figure 1). The Ağla dunite occurrence is situated 13 km north of Köyceğiz-Muğla. The age and paleotectonic setting of the Lycian Nappes have been still disputed. Three different domains constitute the Lycian Nappes identified by Graciensky [2] as follows; nappes of peridodite, metamorphic and nappes of diabases consist of volcano sedimentary rocks and the flysch. The harzburgites is identical with its olive green colour in the field. The dunite body is about 600 metres long and 100 to 200 metres wide and shows a gradual transition to the surrounding harzburgites. It is possible to see small-scale dunite bodies at this region. Dunites show either granular or porphyroblastic texture in different samples. Dunite is composed of olivine (>90%) and substantial amount of orthopyroxene, opaque minerals (chromium rich spinel) and clinopyroxene. Serpentinisation of dunites was controlled by network of a fracture sets along which alteration minerals initiated to form. The Ağla dunites are less serpentinized. Chemical analysis result of the fresh Ağla dunite Key Engineering Materials Online: 2004-05-15 ISSN: 1662-9795, Vols. 264-268, pp 1799-1802 doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.264-268.1799

Ancient Art Tiles from Lalapaşa Mosque (Erzurum, Turkey)

Cleaning procedures were carried out on the Lalapa sa Mosque tiles. The petrographical, mineralogical and chemical characterisation of the Lalapasa Mosque tiles are accomplished and the characteristics are compared with those of the Iznik tiles. The petrographical studies show that quartz is the main mineral. Plagioclase, lamprobolite (amphibole) and chlorite are the other minerals. According to XRD studies on the tile bodies, quartz is the main mineral phase; pyroxene and tridymite (a high temperature polymorph of quartz) are the other minerals. Results of the wet chemical analysis of the tile body yield values of about 90 wt% SiO 2 and concentrations value of lead, so Lalapa sa Mosque tiles show similarity with typical 16th century Iznik tiles.