Murali Prakriya

A mutation in Orai1 causes immune deficiency by abrogating CRAC channel function.

Antigen stimulation of immune cells triggers Ca2+ entry through Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channels, promoting the immune response to pathogens by activating the transcription factor NFAT. We have previously shown that cells from patients with one form of hereditary severe combined immune deficiency (SCID) syndrome are defective in store-operated Ca2+ entry and CRAC channel function. Here we identify the genetic defect in these patients, using a combination of two unbiased genome-wide approaches: a modified linkage analysis with single-nucleotide polymorphism arrays, and a Drosophila RNA interference screen designed to identify regulators of store-operated Ca2+ entry and NFAT nuclear import. Both approaches converged on a novel protein that we call Orai1, which contains four putative transmembrane segments. The SCID patients are homozygous for a single missense mutation in ORAI1, and expression of wild-type Orai1 in SCID T cells restores store-operated Ca2+ influx and the CRAC current (ICRAC). We propose that Orai1 is an essential component or regulator of the CRAC channel complex.

Orai1 is an essential pore subunit of the CRAC channel

Stimulation of immune cells causes depletion of Ca2+ from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stores, thereby triggering sustained Ca2+ entry through store-operated Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channels, an essential signal for lymphocyte activation and proliferation. Recent evidence indicates that activation of CRAC current is initiated by STIM proteins, which sense ER Ca2+ levels through an EF-hand located in the ER lumen and relocalize upon store depletion into puncta closely associated with the plasma membrane. We and others recently identified Drosophila Orai and human Orai1 (also called TMEM142A) as critical components of store-operated Ca2+ entry downstream of STIM. Combined overexpression of Orai and Stim in Drosophila cells, or Orai1 and STIM1 in mammalian cells, leads to a marked increase in CRAC current. However, these experiments did not establish whether Orai is an essential intracellular link between STIM and the CRAC channel, an accessory protein in the plasma membrane, or an actual pore subunit. Here we show that Orai1 is a plasma membrane protein, and that CRAC channel function is sensitive to mutation of two conserved acidic residues in the transmembrane segments. E106D and E190Q substitutions in transmembrane helices 1 and 3, respectively, diminish Ca2+ influx, increase current carried by monovalent cations, and render the channel permeable to Cs+. These changes in ion selectivity provide strong evidence that Orai1 is a pore subunit of the CRAC channel.

Potentiation and inhibition of Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ channels by 2-aminoethyldiphenyl borate (2-APB) occurs independently of IP3 receptors

1 The effects of the IP3‐receptor antagonist 2‐aminoethyldiphenyl borate (2‐APB) on the Ca2+ release‐activated Ca2+ current (ICRAC) in Jurkat human T cells, DT40 chicken B cells and rat basophilic leukaemia (RBL) cells were examined. 2 2‐APB elicited both stimulatory and inhibitory effects on Ca2+ influx through CRAC channels. At concentrations of 1–5 μm, 2‐APB enhanced Ca2+ entry in intact cells and increased ICRAC amplitude by up to fivefold. At levels ≥ 10 μm, 2‐APB caused a transient enhancement of ICRAC followed by inhibition. 3 2‐APB altered the kinetics of fast Ca2+‐dependent inactivation of ICRAC. At concentrations of 1–5 μm, 2‐APB increased the rate of fast inactivation. In contrast, 2‐APB at higher concentrations (≥ 10 μm) reduced or completely blocked inactivation. 4 2‐APB inhibited Ca2+ efflux from mitochondria. 5 2‐APB inhibited ICRAC more potently when applied extracellularly than intracellularly. Furthermore, increased protonation of 2‐APB at low pH did not affect potentiation or inhibition. Thus, 2‐APB may have an extracellular site of action. 6 Neither ICRAC activation by passive store depletion nor the effects of 2‐APB were altered by intracellular dialysis with 500 μg ml−1 heparin. 7 I CRAC is present in wild‐type as well as mutant DT40 B cells lacking all three IP3 receptor isoforms. 2‐APB also potentiates and inhibits ICRAC in both cell types, indicating that 2‐APB exerts its effects independently of IP3 receptors. 8 Our results show that CRAC channel activation does not require physical interaction with IP3 receptors as proposed in the conformational coupling model. Potentiation of ICRAC by 2‐APB may be a useful diagnostic feature for positive identification of putative CRAC channel genes, and provides a novel tool for exploring the physiological functions of store‐operated channels.

Dual functions for the endoplasmic reticulum calcium sensors STIM1 and STIM2 in T cell activation and tolerance

Store-operated Ca2+ entry through calcium release–activated calcium channels is the chief mechanism for increasing intracellular Ca2+ in immune cells. Here we show that mouse T cells and fibroblasts lacking the calcium sensor STIM1 had severely impaired store-operated Ca2+ influx, whereas deficiency in the calcium sensor STIM2 had a smaller effect. However, T cells lacking either STIM1 or STIM2 had much less cytokine production and nuclear translocation of the transcription factor NFAT. T cell–specific ablation of both STIM1 and STIM2 resulted in a notable lymphoproliferative phenotype and a selective decrease in regulatory T cell numbers. We conclude that both STIM1 and STIM2 promote store-operated Ca2+ entry into T cells and fibroblasts and that STIM proteins are required for the development and function of regulatory T cells.

Oligomerization of STIM1 couples ER calcium depletion to CRAC channel activation

Ca2+-release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channels generate sustained Ca2+ signals that are essential for a range of cell functions, including antigen-stimulated T lymphocyte activation and proliferation. Recent studies have revealed that the depletion of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) triggers the oligomerization of stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1), the ER Ca2+ sensor, and its redistribution to ER–plasma membrane (ER–PM) junctions where the CRAC channel subunit ORAI1 accumulates in the plasma membrane and CRAC channels open. However, how the loss of ER Ca2+ sets into motion these coordinated molecular rearrangements remains unclear. Here we define the relationships among [Ca2+]ER, STIM1 redistribution and CRAC channel activation and identify STIM1 oligomerization as the critical [Ca2+]ER-dependent event that drives store-operated Ca2+ entry. In human Jurkat leukaemic T cells expressing an ER-targeted Ca2+ indicator, CRAC channel activation and STIM1 redistribution follow the same function of [Ca2+]ER, reaching half-maximum at ∼200 µM with a Hill coefficient of ∼4. Because STIM1 binds only a single Ca2+ ion, the high apparent cooperativity suggests that STIM1 must first oligomerize to enable its accumulation at ER–PM junctions. To assess directly the causal role of STIM1 oligomerization in store-operated Ca2+ entry, we replaced the luminal Ca2+-sensing domain of STIM1 with the 12-kDa FK506- and rapamycin-binding protein (FKBP12, also known as FKBP1A) or the FKBP-rapamycin binding (FRB) domain of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR, also known as FRAP1). A rapamycin analogue oligomerizes the fusion proteins and causes them to accumulate at ER–PM junctions and activate CRAC channels without depleting Ca2+ from the ER. Thus, STIM1 oligomerization is the critical transduction event through which Ca2+ store depletion controls store-operated Ca2+ entry, acting as a switch that triggers the self-organization and activation of STIM1–ORAI1 clusters at ER–PM junctions.

Separation and Characterization of Currents through Store-operated CRAC Channels and Mg2+-inhibited Cation (MIC) Channels

Although store-operated calcium release–activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channels are highly Ca2+-selective under physiological ionic conditions, removal of extracellular divalent cations makes them freely permeable to monovalent cations. Several past studies have concluded that under these conditions CRAC channels conduct Na+ and Cs+ with a unitary conductance of ∼40 pS, and that intracellular Mg2+ modulates their activity and selectivity. These results have important implications for understanding ion permeation through CRAC channels and for screening potential CRAC channel genes. We find that the observed 40-pS channels are not CRAC channels, but are instead Mg2+-inhibited cation (MIC) channels that open as Mg2+ is washed out of the cytosol. MIC channels differ from CRAC channels in several critical respects. Store depletion does not activate MIC channels, nor does store refilling deactivate them. Unlike CRAC channels, MIC channels are not blocked by SKF 96365, are not potentiated by low doses of 2-APB, and are less sensitive to block by high doses of the drug. By applying 8–10 mM intracellular Mg2+ to inhibit MIC channels, we examined monovalent permeation through CRAC channels in isolation. A rapid switch from 20 mM Ca2+ to divalent-free extracellular solution evokes Na+ current through open CRAC channels (Na+-ICRAC) that is initially eightfold larger than the preceding Ca2+ current and declines by ∼80% over 20 s. Unlike MIC channels, CRAC channels are largely impermeable to Cs+ (PCs/PNa = 0.13 vs. 1.2 for MIC). Neither the decline in Na+-ICRAC nor its low Cs+ permeability are affected by intracellular Mg2+ (90 μM to 10 mM). Single openings of monovalent CRAC channels were not detectable in whole-cell recordings, but a unitary conductance of 0.2 pS was estimated from noise analysis. This new information about the selectivity, conductance, and regulation of CRAC channels forces a revision of the biophysical fingerprint of CRAC channels, and reveals intriguing similarities and differences in permeation mechanisms of voltage-gated and store-operated Ca2+ channels.

Store-Operated Calcium Channels

Store-operated calcium channels (SOCs) are a major pathway for calcium signaling in virtually all metozoan cells and serve a wide variety of functions ranging from gene expression, motility, and secretion to tissue and organ development and the immune response. SOCs are activated by the depletion of Ca(2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), triggered physiologically through stimulation of a diverse set of surface receptors. Over 15 years after the first characterization of SOCs through electrophysiology, the identification of the STIM proteins as ER Ca(2+) sensors and the Orai proteins as store-operated channels has enabled rapid progress in understanding the unique mechanism of store-operate calcium entry (SOCE). Depletion of Ca(2+) from the ER causes STIM to accumulate at ER-plasma membrane (PM) junctions where it traps and activates Orai channels diffusing in the closely apposed PM. Mutagenesis studies combined with recent structural insights about STIM and Orai proteins are now beginning to reveal the molecular underpinnings of these choreographic events. This review describes the major experimental advances underlying our current understanding of how ER Ca(2+) depletion is coupled to the activation of SOCs. Particular emphasis is placed on the molecular mechanisms of STIM and Orai activation, Orai channel properties, modulation of STIM and Orai function, pharmacological inhibitors of SOCE, and the functions of STIM and Orai in physiology and disease.

Hair loss and defective T- and B-cell function in mice lacking ORAI1

ABSTRACT ORAI1 is a pore subunit of the store-operated Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channel. To examine the physiological consequences of ORAI1 deficiency, we generated mice with targeted disruption of the Orai1 gene. The results of immunohistochemical analysis showed that ORAI1 is expressed in lymphocytes, skin, and muscle of wild-type mice and is not expressed in Orai1−/− mice. Orai1−/− mice with the inbred C57BL/6 background showed perinatal lethality, which was overcome by crossing them to outbred ICR mice. Orai1−/− mice were small in size, with eyelid irritation and sporadic hair loss resembling the cyclical alopecia observed in mice with keratinocyte-specific deletion of the Cnb1 gene. T and B cells developed normally in Orai1−/− mice, but B cells showed a substantial decrease in Ca2+ influx and cell proliferation in response to B-cell receptor stimulation. Naïve and differentiated Orai1−/− T cells showed substantial reductions in store-operated Ca2+ entry, CRAC currents, and cytokine production. These features are consistent with the severe combined immunodeficiency and mild extraimmunological symptoms observed in a patient with a missense mutation in human ORAI1 and distinguish the ORAI1-null mice described here from a previously reported Orai1 gene-trap mutant mouse which may be a hypomorph rather than a true null.

Hypoxia Triggers AMPK Activation through Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Activation of Calcium Release-Activated Calcium Channels

ABSTRACT AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is an energy sensor activated by increases in [AMP] or by oxidant stress (reactive oxygen species [ROS]). Hypoxia increases cellular ROS signaling, but the pathways underlying subsequent AMPK activation are not known. We tested the hypothesis that hypoxia activates AMPK by ROS-mediated opening of calcium release-activated calcium (CRAC) channels. Hypoxia (1.5% O2) augments cellular ROS as detected by the redox-sensitive green fluorescent protein (roGFP) but does not increase the [AMP]/[ATP] ratio. Increases in intracellular calcium during hypoxia were detected with Fura2 and the calcium-calmodulin fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) sensor YC2.3. Antioxidant treatment or removal of extracellular calcium abrogates hypoxia-induced calcium signaling and subsequent AMPK phosphorylation during hypoxia. Oxidant stress triggers relocation of stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1), the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ sensor, to the plasma membrane. Knockdown of STIM1 by short interfering RNA (siRNA) attenuates the calcium responses to hypoxia and subsequent AMPK phosphorylation, while inhibition of L-type calcium channels has no effect. Knockdown of the AMPK upstream kinase LKB1 by siRNA does not prevent AMPK activation during hypoxia, but knockdown of CaMKKβ abolishes the AMPK response. These findings reveal that hypoxia can trigger AMPK activation in the apparent absence of increased [AMP] through ROS-dependent CRAC channel activation, leading to increases in cytosolic calcium that activate the AMPK upstream kinase CaMKKβ.

A severe defect in CRAC Ca2+ channel activation and altered K+ channel gating in T cells from immunodeficient patients

Engagement of the TCR triggers sustained Ca2+ entry through Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channels, which helps drive gene expression underlying the T cell response to pathogens. The identity and activation mechanism of CRAC channels at a molecular level are unknown. We have analyzed ion channel expression and function in T cells from SCID patients which display 1–2% of the normal level of Ca2+ influx and severely impaired T cell activation. The lack of Ca2+ influx is not due to deficient regulation of Ca2+ stores or expression of several genes implicated in controlling Ca2+ entry in lymphocytes (kcna3/Kv1.3, kcnn4/IKCa1, trpc1, trpc3, trpv6, stim1). Instead, electrophysiologic measurements show that the influx defect is due to a nearly complete absence of functional CRAC channels. The lack of CRAC channel activity is correlated with diminished voltage sensitivity and slowed activation kinetics of the voltage-dependent Kv1.3 channel. These results demonstrate that CRAC channels provide the major, if not sole, pathway for Ca2+ entry activated by the TCR in human T cells. They also offer evidence for a functional link between CRAC and Kv1.3 channels, and establish a model system for molecular genetic studies of the CRAC channel.