Murray J. Goddard

The role of US signal value in contingency, drug conditioning, and learned helplessness.

In Pavlovian conditioning, organisms can learn that a conditioned stimulus (CS) signals the delivery of an unconditioned stimulus (US). The present paper first reviews research showing that organisms can also learn that a stimulus, normally considered to be a US, signals the delivery of another US. Second, the paper shows how such signal value may contribute to three conditioning phenomena that are of interest to many psychologists: contingency, drug conditioning, and learned helplessness. In addition to showing how such signal value may contribute to these three phenomena, suggestions for further research, as well as current gaps in the knowledge base, are outlined. This research was supported by grants from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). I thank John Wixted and several anonymous reviewers who made many constructive suggestions on earlier versions of this manuscript.

TYPE OF FEATURE AFFECTS TRANSFER IN OPERANT SERIAL FEATURE-POSITIVE DISCRIMINATIONS

In two experiments, the effects of feature identity in operant serial feature-positive discriminations were examined with rats. Rats were trained with two serial feature-positive discriminations (F1 → T1+/ T1− and F2 → T2+/ T2−), in which different operants were reinforced with delivery of a sucrose solution during two auditory target cues (T1 and T2). The features (F1 and F2) were two visual cues, two flavored sucrose solutions, or one visual cue and one sucrose solution. Transfer of a feature’s control to the target of the other discrimination was observed only when the features were from the same modality. When observed, transfer responding was of the form originally trained to the target, rather than the feature, and was preserved after feature extinction. Control groups showed that the differential transfer was not solely the consequence of differential feature generalization. Implications for theories of occasion setting are discussed.

Effect of US signal value on blocking of a CS-US association.

When an unconditioned stimulus (US) signals the delivery of a second US, there is poor conditioned responding to a conditioned stimulus (CS) that signals the second US. Using an appetitive conditioning preparation with rats, 3 experiments examined the factors that contribute to this poor conditioned responding. In Experiment 1, conditioned responding was improved when US-alone presentations came before, but not after, CS training. Experiment 2 showed that the effect in Experiment 1 was not due to context extinction, and Experiment 3 showed that context-US associations do not significantly contribute to responding in the US-US training procedure. The results show that poor conditioned responding is an acquisition deficit, arising from US, rather than context, signal value.

Acquisition of US—no US associations in Pavlovian conditioning☆

Abstract Typically, in Pavlovian conditioning, subjects receive conditioned stimulus (CS)—unconditioned stimulus (US) pairings separated by an intertrial interval (ITI). The present experiments investigated if subjects, in addition to learning the focal CS—US association, learn that a US signals a short time period in which no further USs will be delivered (so-called US—no US learning). In Experiment 1, rats received light (CS)—food (US) pairings at a constant ITI. In addition to showing light conditioning, subjects showed a loss in the number of magazine entries in the ITI immediately after US delivery. Further, there was no evidence of any excilatory temporal conditioning as the time of the next CS—US pairing approached. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1 and found that when all USs were unsignaled, subjects acquired a US—no US association and evidence excitatory temporal conditioning as the time of the next US approached. Experiment 2 also showed that after subjects had acquired a US—no US association, conditioning to another CS was especially rapid when subjects received a US—CS—US conditioning arrangement. The results complement and extend the accumulating evidence that in Pavlovian conditioning multiple associative relations are learned in addition to the focal CS—US association.

The impact of human intuition in psychology.

An empirically valid outcome in psychology may differ in the degree to which the outcome does or does not conform to human intuition. The author provides a brief history of three psychological outcomes violating human intuition, notes the resemblance to the common sense revolution, and then discusses how human intuition may be detrimental to behaviorism and evolutionary perspectives of human nature. The role of human intuition in supernatural beliefs is considered and, finally, possible methods to improve the plausibility of counterintuitive outcomes are suggested.

Sex differences in smiling as measured in a picture taking task

Previous research suggests females smile more than males in a picture taking task (Mills, 1984; Morse, 1982; Ragan, 1982). Experiment 1 sought to replicate this effect and, in addition, investigate if the gender of the photographer or instructions to smile would influence smiling in females and males. Subjects were told that their picture would be used in a subsequent facial perception study. Results showed that subjects instructed to smile smiled more than subjects given no instructions. There were no main effects for subjects or photographers gender and no interactions. In Experiment 2, graduating students from the University of New Brunswick, Saint John, completed a questionnaire which assessed how much subjects wanted to smile for their yearbook picture, whether subjects selected a picture of themselves smiling for their yearbook, and how much the photographer encouraged them to smile. Experiment 2 showed that females wished to smile significantly more than males, and females selected a picture of themselves smiling significantly more than males. Males and females did not differ in the reported degree to which the photographer encouraged them to smile. Results from Experiments 1 and 2 suggest that sex differences in smiling as measured in a picture taking task depend critically on the situation in which the picture is taken.

Context modulation of US signal value.

Context modulation of unconditioned stimulus (US) signal value was examined in two experiments. In Experiment 1, rats showed significantly more magazine entries after a single food pellet US in Context A (in which three additional pellets shortly followed) than in Context B (in which the delivery of three additional pellets was delayed). Experiment 2 replicated this effect and showed that any differences in contextual associative strength at the time the single food pellet was delivered did not importantly contribute to context modulation. Implications for theories of occasion setting and context modulation are considered.

US-US associations as a factor in the habituation to emotionally arousing stimuli

When an emotionally arousing stimulus is expected by an organism, there is a loss (or diminution) of the unconditioned response (UR) elicited by that emotional, or unconditioned, stimulus (US). A US may be expected if it is signaled by a preceding conditioned stimulus (CS), a preceding, but different US, or a preceding and identical US. Conditioned UR diminution, when a US is signaled by a preceding and identical US, may be a factor in the response decline to repeatedly presented USs (habituation) when each US predicts the time of arrival of a subsequent US.

On Certain Similarities Between Mainstream Psychology and the Writings of B. F. Skinner

Abstractselected writings of B. F. Skinner are compared to 5 current topics in mainstream psychology, including the role of the unconscious, human language, the role of dispositions in psychology, human perceptions of conformity and bias, and mindfulness. The striking similarities between Skinner’s work and these 5 current topics support Richelle’s (1993) prediction that psychologists may eventually discover that Skinner was a forerunner in the theory and practice of psychology.

Context modulation of US signal value following explicit and nonexplicit training.

Context modulation of an unconditioned stimulus (US) signal value was examined in three groups of rats. In Group A+/B-, subjects received explicit training in which a single food pellet US was followed by three additional pellets after either a short delay (in Context A) or a long delay (in Context B). Two other groups received nonexplicit training in which subjects received either the same conditions in Context A, but simple exposure to Context B (Group A+/Bo), or the same conditions in Context B, but simple exposure to Context A (Group Ao/B-). In the test, only Group A+/B- showed significantly more magazine entries shortly after the single food pellet in Context A, compared to Context B. Implications for theories of occasion setting and context modulation are considered.