Myriam Mongrain

The benefits of self-compassion and optimism exercises for individuals vulnerable to depression

The effectiveness of two online exercises intended to help individuals experience (1) self-compassion (n = 63) and (2) optimism (n = 55) were compared to a control intervention where participants wrote about an early memory (n = 70). A battery of tests was completed at 1 week following the exercise period, and at 1-, 3-, and 6-month follow-ups. Both active interventions resulted in significant increases in happiness observable at 6 months and significant decreases in depression sustained up to 3 months. The interventions were examined in relationship to dependency and self-criticism, both related to vulnerability to depression. Individuals high in self-criticism became happier at 1 week and at 1 month in the optimism condition in the repeated measures analysis. A sensitivity test using multi-level modeling failed to replicate this effect. More mature levels of dependence (connectedness) were related to improvements in mood up to 6 months in the self-compassion condition. This study suggests that different personality orientations may show greater gains from particular types of positive psychology interventions.

Parental Representations and Support-Seeking Behaviors Related to Dependency and Self-Criticism

Cognitive and interpersonal models of depression were integrated by examining the links between parental representations and the interpersonal behaviors of individuals at risk for depression. Study 1 assessed the quantity and type of social support associated with Dependency and Self-Criticism. Study 2 examined the parental representations related to these personality styles, in an effort to document cognitive variables that might contribute to interpersonal behaviors. Self-critics were found to be more dysphoric over a 21-day, self-monitoring period, made fewer requests for social support, and showed lower perceptions of support. Peers did not report providing less support to self-critics, but found them less expressive and did not know them as well. Study 2 found pervasive, negative parental representations associated with Self-Criticism providing a cognitive underpinning to social distancing. Dependent participants reported higher levels of support, which was corroborated by the peer reports. Study 2 found Dependency to be related to favorable representation of parents for friendly and submissive, but not hostile, situations. The impact of cognitive representations for interpersonal functioning is highlighted, and reciprocal processes between the two are discussed.

Perceptual biases, affect, and behavior in the relationships of dependents and self-critics.

Aspects of interpersonal, personality, and cognitive models of depression were tested in a college sample. The perceptions and actual interpersonal behaviors of dependent and self-critical women and their romantic partners were assessed during a conflict-resolution task. Dependent women were characterized by positive biases in the perception of lovingness expressed within the relationship. The partners of dependent women, however, experienced a decrease in positive affect and a trend toward increasing hostility during the conflict-resolution task. Self-critical women were objectively rated as less loving and more hostile, and their partners were also rated as less loving. Self-critics also exhibited negative biases in self-perceptions of submissiveness. The results are interpreted within a comprehensive framework integrating various elements of interpersonal, personality, and cognitive models of depression.

Ambivalence over emotional expression and negative life events: Mediators of depressive symptoms in dependent and self-critical individuals

We examined life events, emotional intensity, and ambivalence over the expression of emotion as possible mediators to account for the relation between Dependency, Self-Criticism and depressive symptoms. Dependency in both men (N = 74) and women (N = 76) was related to a greater number of negative relationship events and ambivalence over the expression of emotion, both of which predicted self-reported, depressive symptoms. Self-Criticism in women was related to a greater number of negative academic events and ambivalence, both of which also predicted depression. Self-Criticism in men was related only to ambivalence, which predicted depression. The mediational model including life events and ambivalence successfully accounted for 74% of the effect of personality on depression for women, and 47% of the effect for men.

Motivational and affective correlates of Dependency and Self-Criticism

Abstract Dependent, self-critical, mixed and control subjects (N = 152) completed the Personal Striving Assessment Packet (Emmons, Goal Concepts in Personality and Social Psychology, 1989) and self-monitored their moods for one week. Dependency and Self-Criticism were related to higher levels of negative affect. Self-Criticism was related to lower levels of positive affect. Personal strivings were categorized as belonging to one of seven motive categories. Dependency was related to a greater number of interpersonal goals, and to lower levels of achievement and independence goals. Self-Criticism was related to fewer interpersonal goals, and to a greater number of self-presentation goals. Self-critics with low levels of Dependency were also found to have a greater number of achievement strivings. The striving and mood results point to distinct motivational and affective profiles for these personality dimensions. The findings are interpreted within a vulnerability model for depression.

Are positive psychology exercises helpful for people with depressive personality styles

Two exercises involving gratitude and uplifting music were tested for their ability to improve well-being in self-critical and needy individuals. In this study, 772 adults completed measures of depressive symptoms, physical symptoms, happiness, and self-esteem and then practiced the gratitude, music, or control exercise (recalling early childhood memories) for 1 week. Follow-up measures were administered after the intervention period, and 1, 3, and 6 months later. Participants in both the gratitude and the music condition reported greater increases in happiness over time than participants in the control condition. Self-critics were particularly responsive to the gratitude intervention, whereas needy individuals found the exercises ineffective and even detrimental to their self-esteem. These results highlight the importance of identifying individual differences in response to positive psychology exercises.

Conflict over Emotional Expression: Implications for Interpersonal Communication

The current study examined the role of conflict over emotional expression for subjective and interpersonal functioning. The Ambivalence Over the Expression of Emotion Questionnaire (AEQ) was administered to female students who were videotaped while engaging in a conflict-resolution and feedback task with their boyfriends. External ratings showed ambivalent women to be less positive in their verbal statements and to be more constricted in their nonverbal expressions. When mood and other personality constructs were controlled for, ambivalence entailed greater overt submissiveness. Ambivalent women also displayed lower congruence between their verbal and nonverbal communication, irrespective of depression and other personality variables. These data suggest that conflict over emotional expression entails less congruent communication, less positivity in close relationships, and a subordinate stance for the ambivalent individual.

Cognitive Vulnerability, Lifetime Risk, and the Recurrence of Major Depression in Graduate Students

The main purpose of this study was to determine the contribution of cognitive risk variables for previous episodes of major depression and for the recurrence of the disorder in a sample of university graduate students (n = 97). Participants were diagnosed with at least one prior episode of major depression and were assessed again 16 months later (n = 77). Consistent with previous findings (Alloy et al., 2000. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 403–418), cognitive measures including dysfunctional attitudes and a negative attributional style were associated with a greater number of previous episodes of depression, controlling for mood, neuroticism, rumination, sociotropy, and autonomy. Cognitive vulnerability in the achievement domain as well as neuroticism and sociotropy were uniquely related to a greater number of previous episodes of depression. Negative attributions and autonomy predicted the recurrence of the disorder, controlling for past history of depression and all other variables. These findings suggest that the autonomous personality style and negative attributions are particularly pernicious for the recurrence of depression in graduate students. The cognitive variables were not related to anxiety diagnoses, but did predict Axis 2 disorders.

The Power of Love: Mediation of Rejection in Roommate Relationships of Dependents and Self-Critics

This research examined roommate responses to dependent and self-critical personality styles in the hope of finding individuals for whom rejection may be more likely. Interpersonal traits associated with dependency and self-criticism along the love and dominance axes of the Circumplex also were investigated to clarify patterns contributing to roommate rejection. Both dependents and self-critics were more depressed throughout the year. Dependents, however, were perceived as more submissive and loving and were better accepted by roommates. Self-critics were seen as submissive and hostile and were more likely to be rejected. Structural equation modeling indicated that the personality-rejection effects were mediated by perceived interpersonal traits along the love axis and their associated affective consequences for roommates.

Self‐criticism and major depression: An evolutionary perspective

OBJECTIVES This study sought to incorporate the personality style of self-criticism within an evolutionary framework to help explain its relationship to major depression. It was expected that self-critics would engage in poor social comparisons and have greater feelings of internal entrapment, which are both processes related to depression by evolutionary thinkers. DESIGN A cross-sectional design was employed such that participants were first interviewed and then completed several questionnaires. METHODS The sample consisted of 146 graduate students who had experienced at least one prior episode of major depression, which was confirmed using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID). Participants were subsequently administered the Center for epidemiological studies depression scale (CESD), Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ), Social comparison rating scale (SCRS), and Entrapment scale (ES). RESULTS Regression analyses revealed that self-criticism significantly predicted internal entrapment and social comparison when controlling for mood and for levels of dependency. Subsequent Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) revealed that a factor of self-reported entrapment and social comparison mediated the effect of self-criticism on the number of previous episodes of depression. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that part of the reason self-critics are vulnerable to clinical episodes of depression lies in their subjective experience of entrapment and in their negative social comparisons.