Myrte B. Breukink

Chronic Central Serous Chorioretinopathy Is Associated with Genetic Variants Implicated in Age-Related Macular Degeneration

PURPOSE In this study, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at 19 loci, previously associated with age-related macular degeneration (AMD), were systematically tested for association in patients with chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC). In addition, we evaluated the effect of detailed phenotyping on these genetic associations. DESIGN Case-control study. PARTICIPANTS We included 292 cCSC patients, 1147 AMD patients, and 1311 control individuals. METHODS We genotyped SNPs at 19 AMD-associated loci and 6 additional SNPs at the complement factor H (CFH) locus. Phenotyping of all patients was based on fundoscopy, spectral-domain optical coherence tomography, fluorescein angiography (FA), and indocyanine green angiography. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES We measured the allele frequencies of 25 AMD-associated SNPs and CFH haplotype frequencies in patients with cCSC and the effect of phenotypic subdivision of cCSC on genetic associations. RESULTS One SNP in ARMS2 (rs10490924) was significant after Bonferroni correction (Punadjusted=0.002; odds ratio [OR]=0.64). The SNPs at 3 other AMD loci (CFH, TNFRSF10A, ADAMTS9) showed a trend toward association with typical cCSC. Further analysis of the CFH locus identified 2 SNPs that significantly conferred increased risk for cCSC and 1 that was protective. The CFH-H3 haplotype was also found to be protective (P=0.01; OR=0.54). Using multimodal imaging, 197 patients were classified as having typical cCSC, 52 patients had unilateral abnormalities on FA that were otherwise typical of cCSC, and 43 patients had a clinical picture that could be compatible with cCSC, but with features that could also indicate other macular diseases. Significant differences of the minor allele frequencies of the tested SNPs were observed between these 3 phenotypic subgroups. CONCLUSIONS Chronic CSC is associated with genetic variants in ARMS2 and CFH, indicating a genetic and pathophysiologic overlap between cCSC and AMD. Intriguingly, alleles in ARMS2 and CFH that confer risk of AMD may be protective for cCSC, and alleles in CFH that are protective for AMD confer risk for cCSC. Significant differences in allele frequencies were found among the phenotypic subgroups for several SNPs, illustrating the importance of correct clinical classification.

OCT Angiography Compared to Fluorescein and Indocyanine Green Angiography in Chronic Central Serous Chorioretinopathy.

PURPOSE Abnormal choroidal blood flow is considered important in the pathogenesis of chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC). Optical coherence tomography (OCT) angiography can image ocular blood cell flow and could thus provide novel insights in disease mechanisms of CSC. We evaluated depth-resolved flow in chronic CSC by OCT angiography compared to fluorescein angiography (FA) and indocyanine green angiography (ICGA). METHODS Eighteen eyes with chronic CSC, and six healthy controls, were included. Two human observers annotated areas of staining, hypofluorescence, and hotspots on FA and ICGA, and areas of abnormal flow on OCT angiography. Interobserver agreement in annotating OCT angiography and FA/ICGA was measured by Jaccard indices (JIs). We assessed colocation of flow abnormalities and subretinal fluid visible on OCT, and the distance between hotspots on ICGA from flow abnormalities. RESULTS Abnormal areas were most frequently annotated in late-phase ICGA and choriocapillary OCT angiography, with moderately high (median JI, 0.74) and moderate (median JI, 0.52) interobserver agreement, respectively. Abnormalities on late-phase ICGA and FA colocated with those on OCT angiography. Aberrant choriocapillary OCT angiography presented as foci of reduced flow surrounded by hyperperfused areas. Hotspots on ICGA were located near hypoperfused spots on OCT angiography (mean distance, 168 μm). Areas with current or former subretinal fluid were colocated with flow abnormalities. CONCLUSIONS On OCT angiography, chronic CSC showed irregular choriocapillary flow patterns, corresponding to ICGA abnormalities. These results suggest focal choriocapillary ischemia with surrounding hyperperfusion that may lead to subretinal fluid leakage.

The use of eplerenone in therapy-resistant chronic central serous chorioretinopathy

Editor, N ormally sighted school children typically have visual acuity 1.0 (6/6, 20/20) or better. If visual acuity is in the range of normal values (0.8–2.0), vision of a child is usually diagnosed as normal. Recently, children with visual recognition acuity values up to 2.0 (6/3, 20/10) and difficulties in reading have been referred to vision rehabilitation services (Henriksen & Hyvärinen 2012) although no other vision-related problems had been diagnosed. Reading problems of these children in reading Finnish or German texts are not typical to dyslexia; their spelling is very slow, and remembering words difficult, but texts read to these children are remembered well. In these children, fine gratings have been perceived distorted in the middle of the image as if there were problems in encoding of many fine grating lines similar to the findings in vision-impaired children with difficulties in visual processing functions (Hyvärinen & Jacob 2011). Measurement of grating acuity using handheld gratings is easy: The tester moves the grating towards the child until the direction of the grating lines is discriminated. The description of lines in the centre requires first a question on how the lines are seen in the periphery of the grating. If the lines are seen straight, then a follow-up question ‘Are the lines equally straight in the middle’ reveals whether the lines are distorted. If the lines are seen distorted, the grating is moved closer to the child until the lines are perceived straight. This is the distance that is used for calculation of the grating acuity value as cycles per degree (cpd). Grating acuity value in these children is often 4 cpd, that is, much lower than their good recognition acuity. The broad lines up to 4 cpd are transferred via the tectal pathway (Miller et al. 1980; Hyvärinen & Jacob 2011) and are therefore not affected by problems related to encoding in the primary visual cortex. A few slow readers do not perceive the lines in the middle, and the central area is perceived white. Thus, no grating acuity value for central visual field is measurable. Children with known visual processing problems (CVI), a low grating acuity value and normal visual acuity benefit from modifications in the text such as increasing text size (up to font size 72 points in some cases) and/or increasing spacing between letters and lines. These modifications have been helpful also for slow readers with normal recognition acuity but low grating acuity. In some of these ‘normally sighted’ slow readers, further assessment has revealed problems in the perception of directions and distances, even poor writing due to poor eye–hand coordination, which had been diagnosed as a part of dyslexia and not as a disorder of visual brain ‘because the child had normal visual acuity’. Assessment of vision, reading and neurological findings of these slow readers with low grating acuity values and normal visual acuity values will take months. In the meantime, it might be of interest to include grating acuity measurement, as described above, when examining children with reading difficulties to detect whether the problem is related to a hidden damage in the visual brain.

Chronic central serous chorioretinopathy: long-term follow-up and vision-related quality of life

Purpose To describe the clinical findings and long-term outcome of patients with chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC). Materials and methods This was a retrospective case series in 52 eyes of 36 patients with a follow-up period of at least 1 year. Extensive ophthalmic examination and a validated questionnaire concerning vision-related quality of life (National Eye Institute Visual Function Questionnaire [NEI-VFQ]-39) were analyzed. Results Mean visual acuity showed a significant decline over time of 0.16 logarithm of minimum angle of resolution ([logMAR] range: −0.22 to 1.3; P=0.009) after a mean follow-up period of 10.6 years. Also, patients reported lower vision-related quality of life based on the NEI-VFQ-39 for almost all categories compared to healthy controls. Macular atrophy was diagnosed more often on optical coherence tomography compared to other diagnostic entities. Retinal pigment epithelium detachments in the macula were documented on optical coherence tomography in 56% of the patients. A significant thinning of foveal thickness was measured over time compared to unaffected fellow eyes (P=0.002). On long-term follow-up, 13 eyes (37%) showed an increase in number of hot spots on fluorescein angiography. Conclusion This study indicates that cCSC is a progressive disease in many patients, causing a progressive decline in visual acuity, accompanied by lower reported vision-related quality of life. In deciding whether or not to treat, the progressive nature of cCSC should be taken into account in this relatively young and often still professionally active patient group.

Genomic Copy Number Variations of the Complement Component C4B Gene Are Associated With Chronic Central Serous Chorioretinopathy

PURPOSE Chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC) has recently been associated to variants in the complement factor H gene. To further investigate the role of the complement system in cCSC, the genomic copy number variations in the complement component 4 gene (C4) were studied. METHODS C4A and C4B copy numbers were analyzed in 197 cCSC patients and 303 healthy controls by using a Taqman copy number determination assay. Copy numbers of C4A, C4B, and the total C4 load were compared between cases and controls, by using a Fisher exact test. For this analysis Bonferroni correction was performed for three tests, and P values < 0.017 were considered to be significant. A logistic regression model was constructed to calculate the odds ratios (ORs) of each of the C4B copy numbers, using two copies as a reference. For this model P values < 0.05 were considered to be significant. RESULTS C4B genomic copy numbers differed significantly between cCSC patients and healthy controls (P = 0.0018). Absence of C4B significantly conferred risk of cCSC (P = 0.039, OR = 2.61 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.05-6.52]), whereas three copies of C4B significantly decreased the risk of cCSC (P = 0.014, OR = 0.45 [95% CI = 0.23-0.85]). The C4A genomic copy numbers and total C4 load did not significantly differ between cases and controls. CONCLUSIONS This study showed that copy numbers of C4B are significantly associated with cCSC. Carrying no copies of C4B significantly increases the risk of cCSC, whereas carrying three C4B copies is protective. These findings reinforce the hypothesis of a possible involvement of the complement system in the pathogenesis of cCSC.

Half-dose photodynamic therapy followed by diode micropulse laser therapy as treatment for chronic central serous chorioretinopathy: evaluation of a prospective treatment protocol

To evaluate the outcome of a prospective protocol for the treatment of chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC).

Association of a Haplotype in the NR3C2 Gene, Encoding the Mineralocorticoid Receptor, With Chronic Central Serous Chorioretinopathy

Importance Chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC) is a chorioretinal disease with unknown disease etiology. The glucocorticoid receptor and the mineralocorticoid receptor, 2 glucocorticoid-binding receptors, might be involved in the pathogenesis of cCSC. Objective To assess the association of functional variants and haplotypes in the glucocorticoid receptor (NR3C1) and mineralocorticoid receptor (NR3C2) genes with cCSC. Design, Setting, and Participants In this case-control genetic association study, 336 patients with cCSC and 1314 unaffected controls, collected at 3 university medical centers from September 1, 2009, to May 1, 2016, underwent KASP genotyping for selected variants in NR3C1 (rs56149945, rs41423247, and rs6198) and NR3C2 (rs2070951 and rs5522). Main Outcomes and Measures Genetic associations of 3 NR3C1 variants and 2 NR3C2 variants with cCSC. Results Among the 336 patients (274 men and 62 women; mean [SD] age, 52 [10] years), after correction for multiple testing, rs2070951 in the NR3C2 gene was significantly associated with cCSC (odds ratio, 1.29; 95% CI, 1.08-1.53; P = .004). Moreover, the GA haplotype of single-nucleotide polymorphisms rs2070951 and rs5522 in NR3C2 conferred risk for cCSC (odds ratio, 1.39; 95% CI, 1.15-1.68; P = .004), whereas the CA haplotype decreased risk for cCSC (odds ratio, 0.72; 95% CI, 0.60-0.87; P < .001). Three known variants in NR3C1 that alter the activity of the glucocorticoid receptor (rs56149945, rs41423247, and rs6198) were not associated with cCSC. Conclusions and Relevance In this study, the variant rs2070951 and the GA haplotype in NR3C2 were associated with an increased risk for cCSC. Results of this genetic study support a possible role for the mineralocorticoid receptor in the pathogenesis of cCSC. Since these haplotypes have previously been associated with perceived stress, this study provides a clue to bridging clinical risk factors for cCSC to underlying genetic associations.

Efficacy of photodynamic therapy in steroid-associated chronic central serous chorioretinopathy: a case–control study

To investigate whether patients who developed chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC) in association with corticosteroid treatment respond differently to photodynamic therapy (PDT) as compared to patients who have not used corticosteroids.

Role of the Complement System in Chronic Central Serous Chorioretinopathy: A Genome-Wide Association Study

Importance To date, several targeted genetic studies on chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (cCSC) have been performed; however, unbiased genome-wide studies into the genetics of cCSC have not been reported. To discover new genetic loci associated with cCSC and to better understand the causative mechanism of this disease, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) on patients with cCSC. Objective To discover new genetic loci and pathways associated with cCSC and to predict the association of genetic variants with gene expression in patients with cCSC. Design, Setting, and Participants This case-control GWAS was completed in the general community, 3 referral university medical centers, and outpatient care on Europeans individuals with cCSC and population-based control participants. Genotype data was collected from May 2013 to August 2017, and data analysis occurred from August 2017 to November 2017. Main Outcomes and Measures Associations of single-nucleotide polymorphisms, haplotypes, genetic pathways, and predicted gene expression with cCSC. Results A total of 521 patients with cCSC (median age, 51 years; interquartile range [IQR], 44-59 years; 420 [80.6%] male) and 3577 European population-based control participants (median age, 52 years; IQR, 37-71 years; 1630 [45.6%] male) were included. One locus on chromosome 1 at the complement factor H (CFH) gene reached genome-wide significance and was associated with an increased risk of cCSC (rs1329428; odds ratio [OR], 1.57 [95% CI, 1.38-1.80]; P = 3.12 × 10−11). The CFH haplotypes H1 and H3 were protective for cCSC (H1: OR, 0.64 [95% CI, 0.53-0.77]; P = 2.18 × 10−6; H3: OR, 0.54 [95% CI, 0.42-0.70]; P = 2.49 × 10−6), whereas haplotypes H2, H4, H5, and the aggregate of rare CFH haplotypes conferred increased risk (H2: OR, 1.57 [95% CI, 1.30-1.89]; P = 2.18 × 10−6; H4: OR, 1.43 [95% CI, 1.13-1.80]; P = 2.49 × 10−3; H5: OR, 1.80 [95% CI, 1.36-2.39]; P = 4.61 × 10−5; rare haplotypes: OR, 1.99 [95% CI, 1.43-2.77]; P = 4.59 × 10−5). Pathway analyses showed involvement of the complement cascade and alternative open reading frame (ARF) pathway in cCSC. Using PrediXcan, we identified changes in predicted expression of complement genes CFH, complement factor H related 1 (CFHR1), complement factor related 4 (CFHR4), and membrane cofactor protein (MCP/CD46). Additionally, the potassium sodium-activated channel subfamily T member 2 (KCNT2) and tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 10a (TNFRSF10A) genes were differentially expressed in patients with cCSC. Conclusions and Relevance In this GWAS on cCSC, we identified a locus on chromosome 1 at the CFH gene that was significantly associated with cCSC, and we report protective and risk-conferring haplotypes in this gene. Pathway analyses were enriched for complement genes, and gene expression analysis suggests a role for CFH, CFHR1, CFHR4, CD46, KCNT2, and TNFRSF10A in the disease. Taken together, these results underscore the potential importance of the complement pathway in the causative mechanisms of cCSC.