N. M. Soren

Introduction to Concepts of Climate Change Impact on Livestock and Its Adaptation and Mitigation

This chapter provides an overview of the impact of climate change on livestock production and its adaptation and mitigation. Animal agriculture is the major contributor to increasing methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) concentrations in Earth’s atmosphere. Generally there are two-way impacts of livestock on climate change. The first part is the livestock contribution to climate change, while the second part is concerned with livestock getting affected by climate change. Hence, improving livestock production under changing climate scenario must target both reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from livestock and reducing the effect of climate change on livestock production. These efforts will optimize livestock production under the changing climate scenario. The role of livestock on climate change is primarily due to enteric CH4 emission and those from manure management. Various GHG mitigation strategies include manipulation of rumen microbial ecosystem, plant secondary metabolites, ration balancing, alternate hydrogen sinks, manure management, and modeling to curtail GHG emission. Adapting to climate change and reducing GHG emissions may require significant changes in production technology and farming systems that could affect productivity. Many viable opportunities exist for reducing CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation in ruminant animals and from livestock manure management facilities. To be considered viable, these emission reduction strategies must be consistent with the continued economic viability of the producer and must accommodate cultural factors that affect livestock ownership and management. The direct impacts of climate change on livestock are on its growth, milk production, reproduction, metabolic activity, and disease occurrences. The indirect impacts of climate change on livestock are in reducing water and pasture availability and other feed resources. Amelioration of environmental stress impact on livestock requires multidisciplinary approaches which emphasize animal nutrition, housing, and animal health. It is important to understand the livestock responses to the environment and analyze them, in order to design modifications of nutritional and environmental management, thereby improving animal comfort and performance.

Summer season induced rhythmic alterations in metabolic activities to adapt to heat stress in three indigenous (Osmanabadi, Malabari and Salem Black) goat breeds

Abstract A study was conducted to assess the adaptive capability of three indigenous goat breeds to heat stress. Thirty six 10 months to one-year-old female goats of Osmanabadi, Malabari and Salem Black breeds were randomly divided into six groups, OC (n = 6; Osmanabadi control), OHS (n = 6; Osmanabadi heat stress), MC (n = 6; Malabari control), MHS (n = 6; Malabari heat stress), SBC (n = 6; Salem Black control) and SBHS (n = 6; Salem Black heat stress). Among the metabolic activity controlling hormones, the breed factor significantly (P < 0.05) influenced only plasma triiodothyronine (T3). However, heat stress significantly (P < 0.05) decreased thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in both MHS and SHS groups while significantly (P < 0.05) decreased the plasma T3 in MHS. The rumen metabolites such as acetate, propionate, butyrate and total volatile fatty acids (TVFAs) showed significant (P < 0.05) variation for both breed and treatment effect. The Salem Black breed did not show any significant variation for most of the rumen metabolites as compared to both Osmanabadi and Malabari breeds for the heat stress treatment. The study indicated the importance of the metabolic alterations in indigenous goat breeds to cope to the seasonal rhythms. The results indicated that on comparative basis, Salem Black breed adapted better to the heat stress challenges.

Enteric Methane Emission in Sheep: Process Description and Factors Influencing Production

Ruminants by virtue of the anatomical structures of the gastrointestinal tract possess a large fermentation vessel known as rumen, where complex feed materials are acted by microbes and are degraded under anaerobic condition to produce volatile fatty acids and fermentative gases. The short-chain volatile fatty acids, namely, acetate, propionate, butyrate and valerate, along with small quantity of branched-chain fatty acids like iso-butyrate and iso-valerate are the main source of energy for the ruminants. Different fermentative gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), etc. are produced in the rumen of sheep during the process of digestion. Enteric CH4 is one of the important gases which animal nutritionists and environmentalists are concerned owing to wastage of feed energy to the tune 8–12% and also due to the phenomenon of global warming. CH4 is a potent greenhouse gas (GHG) which is responsible for global warming, and it is about 23 times more potent than CO2. CH4 gas which is added to the atmosphere comes from both biotic source and from anthropogenic activity. In the last few decades, there is steady increase in human population, industrialization, urbanization and income of people, and this phenomenon has increased the demand of livestock-derived food like meat, milk and eggs. To cope up with the demand of food of livestock origin, the number of food animals have also increased to several folds. The livestock, especially in developing countries, thrives on poor-quality feed material which is also one of the contributory factors for increased enteric CH4 production. Sheep is a grazing animal and thrives on pastures, grassland and community grazing land. Sheep as a food animal plays an important role in meeting the protein requirement of human population and provides and generates income for the farmers worldwide. In spite of the beneficial effect, sheep inherently produce huge quantity of CH4 in their stomach and release them to the environment which contributes to the phenomenon of global warming. As sheep is primarily a grazing animal, the quality of pasture may be a determining factor for enteric CH4 production. This chapter deals with the enteric CH4 production in sheep; microorganisms involved in the process, metabolic pathways existing in the rumen and factors influencing enteric CH4 production are discussed in details.

Enteric Methane Emission Under Different Feeding Systems

Methane is a potent greenhouse gas (GHG) which is responsible for global warming, and it is about 23 times more potent than carbon dioxide and is produced worldwide by biotic and anthropogenic activity. Increased industrialisation in the past few decades and an increase in global human population have increased the demand of food particularly of animal origin to a significant level. The livestock population, especially ruminants in particular, is responsible for emitting 16–20 % of the CH4 to the atmosphere. The enteric fermentation in ruminants is unique, carried out by the anaerobic microorganism, and culminates in the formation of CH4, which is the sink for hydrogen and carbon dioxide, formed as a result of anaerobic fermentation in the rumen. The population of domesticated ruminant livestock species like cattle, buffalos, sheep, goat, mithun, yak, etc., which provide food to humans has increased worldwide in the recent past. These livestock are reared under different systems that are prevailing in a particular country, and the most common identified livestock rearing systems are intensive, extensive and semi-intensive. In intensive system of rearing, the animals are confined and more concentrates are fed with provision of quality roughages. While in the extensive system of rearing, the livestock are let loose and depend on the pasture for their growth and production, and the quality of the pasture is responsible for the nutrients assimilated by the animal. The semi-intensive system of rearing is a combination of the above two systems. Enteric CH4 production in ruminants depends on several factors like type and quality of feed, the physical and chemical characteristics of the feed, species of livestock, feeding level and schedule, the efficiency of feed conversion to livestock products, the use of feed additives to support production efficiency, the activity and health of the animal and genetic make-up of the animal. Therefore, feeding system(s) employed for livestock rearing certainly has an effect on the enteric CH4 production. A concerted effort has been put in this chapter to get an insight into the different livestock rearing and feeding systems, CH4 contribution from livestock and global warming, CH4 production from different feeding systems and means to augment livestock production by reducing enteric CH4 under different feeding regimens.

Relationship of organic mineral supplementation and spermatozoa/white blood cells mRNA in goats

The antioxidant properties and the protective role of organic zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) in white blood cells (WBCs) and spermatozoa were analyzed through quantification of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPx4) and nuclear factor erythroid 2-like 2 (NFE2L2) and correlations were determined with sperm functional characteristics in Osmanabadi bucks. Bucks (aged 5 months; n = 40) were divided into ten groups, and the dietary treatments comprised of a control and nine treatment groups as follows: organic Zn as Zn 20, Zn 40 and Zn 60, organic Cu as Cu 12.5, Cu 25, Cu 37.5 and combined organic Zn and Cu as Zn 20+Cu 12.5, Zn 40+Cu 25, Zn 60+Cu 37.5, respectively per kg dry matter for a period of 8 months. The blood (120 and 240 days) and semen (240 days: 40 × 4 = 160) samples were collected from 40 bucks. In WBCs: the relative abundance of mRNA for SOD1, CAT, GPx4, NFE2L2 was greater (P < 0.05) in (120 and 240 days) in majority of the mineral supplemented animals. In spermatozoa: the relative abundance of SOD1, NFE2L2, GPx4 and CAT mRNA was greater (P < 0.05) in selected treatment groups. The abundance of SOD1 mRNA in WBCs was positively correlated (P <  0.05) with sperm mass motility (r = 0.692, P = 0.027). The abundance of GPx4 mRNA was negatively correlated (P <  0.05) with type A sperm (straightness; STR) > 85% and amplitude of lateral head displacement (ALH) > 2.5 μm/ s) (r = -0.711, P = 0.021) and (P <  0.05) positively correlated with sperm viability (r = 0.669, P = 0.035). Organic Zn and Cu supplementation was associated with an increase in the expression of antioxidant defense enzyme genes in bucks.

Adaptation Strategies to Counter Climate Change Impact on Sheep

Climate change has proved to impose potential negative effects on species survival, ecosystems stability and sustainable livestock production around the globe. Among the various environmental factors, heat stress is well known for its harmful effects on livestock and related production losses. Sheep exposed to heat stress show lower body growth and hide quality and compromised reproductive functions in both males and females. Adapting to the changing climate requires appropriate manipulations in the production system by taking into account the positive effects and attempting to diminish the negative effects of climate change. The highly adapted indigenous breeds identified by marker-assisted selection can be used as an efficient tool for developing thermotolerant breeds through improved breeding programmes. Promotion of such breeds can improve production efficiency and may lead to fewer greenhouse gas emissions. Further, the local people, especially women, are good managers of natural resources and possess excellent skills to utilize the natural resources efficiently. Hence, occasional training and a participatory research approach into the roles of women assist the tackling of climate change in the rural areas. In addition, well-organized early warning systems avoid severe damage due to unexpected disasters by providing sufficient time to prepare effective responses. Development of skilled disease surveillance supported with effective health services may effectively control the spread of climate change-related diseases in sheep. Furthermore, the production system requires improved water resource management to provide sufficient water for sheep production in the arid and semi-arid regions. Cultivation of drought-tolerant fodder varieties in extremely hot areas is an efficient adaptive strategy to ensure sufficient supply of feed during scarcity periods. Finally, strengthening extension services and building awareness through capacity-building programmes helps the livestock keepers to improve their adaptive capacities against climate change. Adaptation strategies related to cold stress include advanced cold-tolerant breeding programmes, migration in extreme winter and adoption of proper cold management practices. According to the predictions by various international bodies, the consequences of climate change will be on the rise in the future. Hence, adequate cost-effective management strategies appear to be the immediate need of the hour for adapting sheep production systems to the changing climate.

Alternate H2 Sinks for reducing rumen methanogenesis

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from livestock is about 7,516 million metric tons CO2−eq. year−1 and has multiple components that include enteric methane emissions, methane and nitrous oxide emissions from manure and carbon dioxide emissions associated with feed production and grazing. An uninterruptedly increasing concentration (155 % more than preindustrial level), a comparatively high global warming potential and a short half-life of methane make it a bit more important than any other GHG in the control of global warming and climate change. Enteric methane mitigation is not only important from a global warming point but also for saving animal dietary energy which is otherwise lost in the form of methane. Due to the central regulatory role of H2, it is generally referred as the currency of fermentation and most of the mitigation strategies revolve around its production or disposal in such a way as to ensure the conservation of energy into desirable end products. In the chapter, an attempt is made to address the prospects of some emerging approaches to redirect metabolic H2 away from methanogenesis and serve as potential alternate sink for H2 in the rumen for conserving energy. The prospects of alternate sinks, for instance, sulphate and nitrate reduction and reductive acetogenesis and propionogenesis, are debated in the chapter along with the anticipated benefits that can be achieved from the practically feasible 20 % enteric methane reduction.

Effect of Different Diet Level on the Physiological Adaptability, Biochemical and Endocrine Responses and Relative Hepatic HSP70 and HSP90 Genes Expression in Osmanabadi Kids

The study was conducted to investigate the impact of different levels of feed on the adaptive capability based on physiological, blood biochemical, endocrine and molecular mechanisms in growing Osmanabadi kids. The primary objective of the study was to identify if HSP70 and HSP90 can be a nutritional stress marker for goat. The study was conducted for a period of two months. The animals were randomly divided into three groups as GI (n = 6; ad libitum feeding), GII (n = 6; 20% less than ad libitum) and GIII (n = 6; 40% less than ad libitum). The animals were fed with feed consisting of 50% roughage and 50% concentrate. Blood collection was carried out at fortnightly intervals. Body weights were recorded at weekly interval. Physiological responses, biochemical responses, plasma tri-iodo-thyronine (T3), thyroxin (T4) and cortisol were recorded at fortnightly interval. At the end of study period, only GI and GIII animals were slaughtered and different organs were collected for histopathological studies as well as for hepatic HSP70 and HSP90 mRNA transcript expression. Body weight recorded showed significant (P < 0.01) differences between the groups. Physiological responses showed significant (P < 0.01) variation among the groups. Among the biochemical parameters, plasma glucose and total plasma protein and globulin showed significant (P < 0.01) differences between the groups. Plasma T3 (P < 0.01), T4 (P < 0.01) and cortisol (P < 0.05) also differed significantly between the groups. The relative hepatic HSP70 mRNA transcript expression was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in GIII (2.8 fold) as compared to GI (1 fold) kids. Similar result was obtained for hepatic HSP90 mRNA transcript expression. From the results, it can be concluded that Osmanabadi kids possessed the ability to alter their adaptive mechanisms to maintain homeostasis. Further, the study revealed the significance of providing the optimum nutrition for these animals to adapt to existing environmental conditions. The study also established that respiration rate (RR), rectal temperature (RT), T3, T4 and cortisol are considered as nutritional stress markers for goat. Further, the results revealed that probably this is the first study to establish the nutritional stress impact on heat shock protein (HSP) expression in goats. The study identified both HSP70 and HSP90 to be the ideal molecular markers for feed deficit in goats.