Nancy Walters

M cell-targeted DNA vaccination

DNA immunization, although attractive, is poor for inducing mucosal immunity, thus limiting its protective value against most infectious agents. To surmount this shortcoming, we devised a method for mucosal transgene vaccination by using an M cell ligand to direct the DNA vaccine to mucosal inductive tissues and the respiratory epithelium. This ligand, reovirus protein σ1, when conjugated to polylysine (PL), can bind the apical surface of M cells from nasal-associated lymphoid tissues. Intranasal immunizations with protein σ1-PL-DNA complexes produced antigen-specific serum IgG and prolonged mucosal IgA, as well as enhanced cell-mediated immunity, made evident by elevated pulmonary cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses. Therefore, targeted transgene vaccination represents an approach for enabling DNA vaccination of the mucosa.

Oral Vaccination with Salmonella Simultaneously Expressing Yersinia pestis F1 and V Antigens Protects against Bubonic and Pneumonic Plague

The gut provides a large area for immunization enabling the development of mucosal and systemic Ab responses. To test whether the protective Ags to Yersinia pestis can be orally delivered, the Y. pestis caf1 operon, encoding the F1-Ag and virulence Ag (V-Ag) were cloned into attenuated Salmonella vaccine vectors. F1-Ag expression was controlled under a promoter from the caf1 operon; two different promoters (P), PtetA in pV3, PphoP in pV4, as well as a chimera of the two in pV55 were tested. F1-Ag was amply expressed; the chimera in the pV55 showed the best V-Ag expression. Oral immunization with Salmonella-F1 elicited elevated secretory (S)-IgA and serum IgG titers, and Salmonella-V-Ag(pV55) elicited much greater S-IgA and serum IgG Ab titers than Salmonella-V-Ag(pV3) or Salmonella-V-Ag(pV4). Hence, a new Salmonella vaccine, Salmonella-(F1+V)Ags, made with a single plasmid containing the caf1 operon and the chimeric promoter for V-Ag allowed the simultaneous expression of F1 capsule and V-Ag. Salmonella-(F1+V)Ags elicited elevated Ab titers similar to their monotypic derivatives. For bubonic plague, mice dosed with Salmonella-(F1+V)Ags and Salmonella-F1-Ag showed similar efficacy (>83% survival) against ∼1000 LD50 Y. pestis. For pneumonic plague, immunized mice required immunity to both F1- and V-Ags because the mice vaccinated with Salmonella-(F1+V)Ags protected against 100 LD50 Y. pestis. These results show that a single Salmonella vaccine can deliver both F1- and V-Ags to effect both systemic and mucosal immune protection against Y. pestis.

Selection of protective epitopes for Brucella melitensis by DNA vaccination.

ABSTRACT The Brucella melitensis 16M genome was examined for proteins in excess of 100 amino acids and for immunogenicity-associated genes. One subset of 32 annotated genes or open reading frames was identified, and each of these were cloned into the eukaryotic vector pcDNA3.1. Purified recombinant plasmids were used to intramuscularly (i.m.) immunize BALB/c mice. After challenge with B. melitensis 16M strain, two protective antigens were found: the periplasmic protein, bp26, and the chaperone protein, trigger factor (TF). Protective efficacy was confirmed with DNA vaccines for these two B. melitensis proteins and, when combined, protection against wild-type challenge was significantly enhanced. Both proteins were found to be immunogenic since elevated serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies without a specific IgG subclass bias were induced subsequent to i.m. DNA immunization. Antigen-restimulation assays revealed that bp26 and TF stimulated gamma interferon and only bp26 induced interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, and IL-6 cytokines as measured by cytokine enzyme-linked immunospot assay. These collective results suggest that both bp26 and TF are excellent candidates for use in future vaccination studies against brucellosis.

Deletion of znuA Virulence Factor Attenuates Brucella abortus and Confers Protection against Wild-Type Challenge

ABSTRACT znuA is known to be an important factor for survival and normal growth under low Zn2+ concentrations for Escherichia coli, Haemophilus spp., Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Pasteurella multocida. We hypothesized that the znuA gene present in Brucella melitensis 16 M would be similar to znuA in B. abortus and questioned whether it may also be an important factor for growth and virulence of Brucella abortus. Using the B. melitensis 16 M genome sequence, primers were designed to construct a B. abortus deletion mutant. A znuA knockout mutation in B. abortus 2308 (ΔznuA) was constructed and found to be lethal in low-Zn2+ medium. When used to infect macrophages, ΔznuA B. abortus showed minimal growth. Further study with ΔznuA B. abortus showed that its virulence in BALB/c mice was attenuated, and most of the bacteria were cleared from the spleen within 8 weeks. Protection studies confirmed the ΔznuA mutant as a potential live vaccine, since protection against wild-type B. abortus 2308 challenge was as effective as that obtained with the RB51 or S19 vaccine strain.

Protective live oral brucellosis vaccines stimulate Th1 and th17 cell responses.

ABSTRACT Zoonotic transmission of brucellosis often results from exposure to Brucella-infected livestock, feral animals, or wildlife or frequently via consumption of unpasteurized milk products or raw meat. Since natural infection of humans often occurs by the oral route, mucosal vaccination may offer a means to confer protection for both mucosal and systemic tissues. Significant efforts have focused on developing a live brucellosis vaccine, and deletion of the znuA gene involved in zinc transport has been found to attenuate Brucella abortus. A similar mutation has been adapted for Brucella melitensis and tested to determine whether oral administration of ΔznuA B. melitensis can confer protection against nasal B. melitensis challenge. A single oral vaccination with ΔznuA B. melitensis rapidly cleared from mice within 2 weeks and effectively protected mice upon nasal challenge with wild-type B. melitensis 16M. In 83% of the vaccinated mice, no detectable brucellae were found in their spleens, unlike with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)-dosed mice, and vaccination also enhanced the clearance of brucellae from the lungs. Moreover, vaccinated gamma interferon-deficient (IFN-γ−/−) mice also showed protection in both spleens and lungs, albeit protection that was not as effective as in immunocompetent mice. Although IFN-γ, interleukin 17 (IL-17), and IL-22 were stimulated by these live vaccines, only RB51-mediated protection was codependent upon IL-17 in BALB/c mice. These data suggest that oral immunization with the live, attenuated ΔznuA B. melitensis vaccine provides an attractive strategy to protect against inhalational infection with virulent B. melitensis.

Impaired Mucosal Immunity in L-Selectin-Deficient Mice Orally Immunized with a Salmonella Vaccine Vector

Lymphocyte trafficking in the gastrointestinal tract is primarily mediated by interactions with the mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule 1 and its lymphocyte ligand, α4β7, and partly by L-selectin (L-Sel) interactions with peripheral node addressin coexpressed on some mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule 1. We inquired whether intestinal responses in mice lacking L-Sel would be enhanced. L-Sel-deficient (L-Sel−/−) mice were orally immunized with either Salmonella vaccine vector or Salmonella vector-expressing colonization factor Ag I (CFA/I) from enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. In L-Sel−/− mice, mucosal IgA anti-CFA/I fimbrial responses were greatly reduced, and systemic IgG2a anti-CFA/I fimbrial responses were 26-fold greater compared with C57BL/6 (L-Sel+/+) mice. L-Sel−/− Peyer’s patch (PP) CD4+ Th cells revealed IFN-γ-dominated responses and an unprecedented absence of IL-4, whereas the expected mixed Th cell phenotype developed in L-Sel+/+ mice. PP CD4+ Th cell anti-Salmonella responses were nearly nonexistent in L-Sel−/− mice immunized with either Salmonella vaccine. Splenic CD4+ Th cell anti-Salmonella responses were reduced but did show cytokine production in Ag restimulation assays. Increased colonization of PP and spleen was noted only with the Salmonella vector in L-Sel−/− mice, resulting in increased splenomegaly, suggesting that the Salmonella-CFA/I vaccine was not as infectious or that the presence of the fimbriae improved clearance, possibly because of reduced neutrophil recruitment. However, sufficient anti-Salmonella immunity was induced, because Salmonella vector-immunized L-Sel−/− mice showed complete protection against wild-type Salmonella challenge, unlike L-Sel+/+ mice. This evidence shows that L-Sel is important for development of mucosal immunity, and absence of L-Sel is protective against salmonellosis.

Cutting Edge: Dichotomy of Homing Receptor Dependence by Mucosal Effector B Cells: αE Versus L-Selectin

The common mucosal immune system may be compartmentalized because lymphocyte homing to the upper respiratory tract appears to be mediated by L-selectin interactions rather than α4β7 interactions, as is the case for gut-associated lymphoreticular tissue. To assess the role of L-selectin in effector B cell immunity, L-selectin-deficient mice were intranasally immunized with cholera toxin (CT), and mucosal immune responses were compared with C57BL/6 mice. The absence of L-selectin correlated with a reduction in CT-specific secretory-IgA responses in nasal passages and reproductive tract, but not intestinal lamina propria. Cell sorting experiments showed that an L-selectin-dependent subset was responsible for CT-specific responses in nasal passages and reproductive tract, whereas an αEβ7+ B cell subset was responsible for L-selectin-independent intestinal immunity. This study provides evidence for compartmentalization of the common mucosal immune system into “intestinal” vs “nonintestinal” effector sites.

Enhanced Immunoglobulin A Response and Protection against Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium in the Absence of the Substance P Receptor

ABSTRACT The development of the neurokinin-1 receptor-deficient (NK1R−/−) mouse permitted inquiry into the regulation of secretory immunoglobulin A (S-IgA) responses by substance P (SP) after oral immunization with a Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium vector expressing colonization factor antigen I (CFA/I) from enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. In NK1R−/− mice, mucosal and serum IgA anti-CFA/I fimbrial responses were augmented, while secreted IgG anti-CFA/I fimbrial responses remained unaffected compared to those of BALB/c (NK1R+/+) mice. Supportive antibody-forming cells were present in the small intestinal lamina propria and spleen. To gain insight as to why the augmented S-IgA responses occurred, minimally, the responses were not attributed to differences in vaccine colonization of Peyers patch (PP) and spleen or in their respective tissue weights. However, these S-IgA responses were supported by increased numbers of PP CD4+ T helper (Th) cells secreting interleukin-5 (IL-5) and IL-6 and splenic CD4+ Th cells secreting IL-6 compared to NK1R+/+ mice. Challenge of naive NK1R−/− mice with wild-type Salmonella showed improved median survival compared to naive NK1R+/+ mice. Data from peritoneal macrophage infection studies suggest that this survival is in part contributed by increased IL-10 production. Oral vaccination with Salmonella CFA/I or Salmonella vector showed no significant differences in conferred protection against wild-type challenge for either NK1R−/− or NK1R+/+ mice. Thus, these studies suggest that SP mediation contributes to proinflammatory responses to Salmonella infections.

ΔznuAΔpurE Brucella abortus 2308 mutant as a live vaccine candidate

To create a new, safe brucellosis live vaccine, a double mutant strain was constructed from Brucella abortus 2308. Using the DeltaznuA B. abortus 2308 mutant, a second mutation was introduced by deleting purE gene. The DeltaznuA DeltapurE B. abortus 2308 strain was less capable of surviving in macrophages. When evaluated in vivo, it was cleared within 8 weeks (wks) from mice, causing significantly less inflammation than spleens obtained from wild-type B. abortus 2308-infected mice. Furthermore, two doses of DeltaznuA DeltapurE B. abortus 2308 conferred 0.79 log protection, similar to S19 as did a single dose of DeltaznuA B. abortus 2308. Thus, this study shows the DeltaznuA DeltapurE B. abortus 2308 strain to be a potential livestock vaccine candidate.

Expression of Escherichia coli virulence usher protein attenuates wild-type Salmonella

Generation of a live attenuated vaccine for bacterial pathogens often requires prior knowledge of the pathogen’s virulence factors. We hypothesized an alternative approach of heterologous gene expression would make a wild-type (wt) pathogen more susceptible to host cell killing, thus, resulting in immunization. As proof of concept, the heterologous expression of enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) colonization factor antigen I (CFA/I) was tested to attenuate Salmonella. The overexpression of CFA/I resulted in significant attenuation of wt Salmonella. In-depth studies revealed the attenuation depended on the co-expression of chaperone (CfaA) and usher (CfaC) proteins. Remarkably, the CfaAC-attenuated Salmonella conferred protection against wt Salmonella challenge. Mechanistic study indicated CfaAC made Salmonella outer membranes permeable, causing Salmonella to be vulnerable to host destruction. Thus, enhancing bacterial permeability via CfaAC represents an alternative method to attenuate pathogens despite the presence of unknown virulence factors.