Naomi Ziv

Themes as prototypes: Similarity judgments and categorization tasks in musical contexts

Similarity judgments and corresponding categorizations often differ, as the former does not predict the latter (Keil, 1989). Prototype-based models suggest that categorization emphasizes features which distinguish contrasting prototypes from each other, features which may have a lesser role in free similarity ratings (Medin, Goldstone & Gentner, 1993; Rosch, 1988). We studied this effect in musical contexts, examining how specifying contrasting musical themes as frames of reference affects listeners’ categorizations of other extracts in the same composition, and comparing categorizations with corresponding similarity judgments. Musical materials employed in Lamont & Dibbens similarity rating experiment (2001), extracted from piano pieces by Beethoven and Schoenberg, were used. Participants independently marked, for each piece, to what degree extracts “belong” to each of its two main themes. These categorizations were compared with similarity ratings in the above study and with published thematic analyses of the 2 pieces, and were correlated with combinations of diverse musical features of the themes. Categorizations concurred with similarity ratings for Beethoven, and differed for Schoenberg. However, despite participants’ independent ratings of affiliations with the two themes, in both pieces categorizations, unlike similarity ratings, were negatively correlated: the stronger an extracts affiliation with a theme, the weaker its affiliation with a contrasting theme. This effect resulted in some dramatic disparities between similarity ratings and corresponding categorizations. In addition, correlating listeners’ categorizations with musical features generated a graded category structure, where an extracts affiliation with a theme correlated with the number of distinctive surface features it shared with this theme. We suggest that musical themes serve as concrete prototypes for other events in the piece. Presenting contrasting themes emphasizes their distinctive features, thus creating an intraopus field of similarities and differences which characterizes the piece. Within that field, rival prototypes, represented by the main themes, compete to add incoming events to their sphere.

Music and moral judgment: The effect of background music on the evaluation of ads promoting unethical behavior

Background music is often used in ads as a means of persuasion. Previous research has studied the effect of music in advertising using neutral or uncontroversial products. The aim of the studies reported here was to examine the effect of music on the perception of products promoting unethical behavior. Each of the series of three studies described examined the effect of background music on recall and evaluation of a fictive radio ad promoting different types of cheating. The studies consider the effect of involvement, attitudes, priming and presentation context, and music’s valence. In all the studies, background music led to reduced recall of information. Positive-valence music reduced awareness of the unethical message, and increased acceptance of the product. The results demonstrate the power of music to manipulate and bias moral judgment.

The effect of positive music and dispositional hope on state hope and affect

Within the field of positive psychology, hope has been shown to be related to individuals’ ways of coping with success and failure. The present study examined the effect of music and dispositional hope on state hope, after experiencing failure. Sixty participants filled out a dispositional hope questionnaire, and completed a computer task for which they received false failure feedback. Thirty participants listened to positive music following the task, while 30 participants did not receive the music stimulus. Participants then filled out a state hope questionnaire and a positive and negative affect scale. Results showed a significant effect of music on state hope: participants listening to positive music scored higher on state hope than participants in the control group. No significant effect for dispositional hope was found. However, an interaction between dispositional hope and music was found, such that music was shown to affect only high dispositional hope participants, and had no effect on low dispositional hope participants. No significant effects on affect were found. Results are discussed in relation to individual differences in music’s effect. Future directions for research and implications for music therapy are suggested.

Absolute and relative pitch: Global versus local processing of chords.

Absolute pitch (AP) is the ability to identify or produce notes without any reference note. An ongoing debate exists regarding the benefits or disadvantages of AP in processing music. One of the main issues in this context is whether the categorical perception of pitch in AP possessors may interfere in processing tasks requiring relative pitch (RP). Previous studies, focusing mainly on melodic and interval perception, have obtained inconsistent results. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of AP and RP separately, using isolated chords. Seventy-three musicians were categorized into four groups of high and low AP and RP, and were tested on two tasks: identifying chord types (Task 1), and identifying a single note within a chord (Task 2). A main effect of RP on Task 1 and an interaction between AP and RP in reaction times were found. On Task 2 main effects of AP and RP, and an interaction were found, with highest performance in participants with both high AP and RP. Results suggest that AP and RP should be regarded as two different abilities, and that AP may slow down reaction times for tasks requiring global processing.

Music and compliance: Can good music make us do bad things?

Music is commonly used in various contexts as a means to manipulate people. Two studies examined the effect of positive background music on compliance with a request to harm a third person. In Study 1 participants were asked by a male researcher, in the context of obligatory experiment participation, to call another participant and tell her she could not take part in the study. In Study 2, participants on a voluntary basis were asked by a female researcher to call another student and tell her she would not receive promised course material. In both cases, no justifiable reason for the request was given, other than the researcher “didn’t feel like it.” Compliance rates were higher in both studies when pleasant, familiar music was played than with no music. No effects of mood were found. Results and implications are discussed in terms of the power of music to influence behavior.

Music and time: the effect of experimental paradigm, musical structure and subjective evaluations on time estimation

The effect of experimental paradigm, musical structure and subjective evaluations on time estimation was studied. In a 2 (prospective/retrospective) × 2 (tonal/atonal) between-subjects design, participants listened to either a tonal or an atonal piece in a prospective or a retrospective paradigm and were asked to estimate its duration, and rate it on perceived pleasantness and structure. Interaction effects between experimental paradigm and musical structure were found for time estimations and for subjective ratings. The tonal piece was estimated as longer, more pleasant and in a clearer key in the retrospective paradigm, whereas the reverse was found for the atonal piece. Moreover, time estimations were negatively and positively related to subjective ratings in the prospective and retrospective paradigms respectively. Results are discussed in relation to existing models of time estimation.

Reactions to “patriotic” and “protest” songs in individuals differing in political orientation

Music is commonly used in political contexts, to strengthen attitudes and group cohesion. The reported research examined reactions to music representing national values or contesting them in individuals with different political orientations, on issues related to national pride, cohesion and free expression. In Study 1, 100 Israeli participants heard three “patriotic” or “protest” songs and rated their agreement with statements regarding them. Beyond a number of main effects of music and of political orientation, several interactions between these two variables were found. For right-wing participants, patriotic music increased pride whereas protest music increased shame and fear of social disintegration. For left-wing participants, protest music led to higher agreement with the right to free expression. Study 2 included 78 participants and repeated the procedure with parallel texts. Main effects of texts were found, but no main effects of political orientation or interactions were found. Results are discussed in terms of the role and impact of music in political settings.

Musical flavor: the effect of background music and presentation order on taste

In many food marketing contexts products are sampled while music is played in the background. The purpose of this paper is to examine whether changing the pleasantness of background music while tasting two identical products in succession may influence the experience of taste and preference.,Two studies were conducted. In Study 1, 60 participants were asked to taste two identical cookies, one with pleasant and one with unpleasant background music, in differing orders. In Study 2, 60 participants tasted two cookies with two unpleasant musical pieces and 60 participants tasted two cookies with pleasant background music. Participants were asked to evaluate each cookie and indicate which cookie they preferred.,In Study 1, a main effect of music was found, with cookies tasted with pleasant background music evaluated as better than those tasted with unpleasant background music. In addition, an interaction between presentation order and music was found, with a stronger difference in evaluation between the cookies when the first is tasted with pleasant background music. In Study 2, no main effect of music was found. A primacy effect was found, with higher evaluations for the first tasted cookie.,The studies considered only one type of product, which in itself is pleasant-tasting. Further studies, using other products, are thus needed to allow generalization.,A discerning use of background music in consumer settings involving sampling of a sequence of products may aid marketers in maximizing music’s effect on product evaluation and choice.,Although the effect of music on taste has been previously studied, this is the first research to examine presentation order effects of music pleasantness on the experience of taste. The pleasantness of background music is integrated into the experience of taste, and food marketing strategies should take into account how the order in which different musical pieces are heard may influence consumers’ evaluation and preference for sampled products.