Natalie Rusk

The Scratch Programming Language and Environment

Scratch is a visual programming environment that allows users (primarily ages 8 to 16) to learn computer programming while working on personally meaningful projects such as animated stories and games. A key design goal of Scratch is to support self-directed learning through tinkering and collaboration with peers. This article explores how the Scratch programming language and environment support this goal.

Scratch: A Sneak Preview

Scratch is a networked, media-rich programmingenvironment designed to enhance the development oftechnological fluency at after-school centers ineconomically-disadvantaged communities. Just as theLEGO MindStorms robotics kit added programmabilityto an activity deeply rooted in youth culture (buildingwith LEGO bricks), Scratch adds programmability tothe media-rich and network-based activities that aremost popular among youth at after-school computercenters. Taking advantage of the extraordinaryprocessing power of current computers, Scratchsupports new programming paradigms and activitiesthat were previously infeasible, making it betterpositioned to succeed than previous attempts tointroduce programming to youth.Our working hypothesis is that, as kids work onpersonally meaningful Scratch projects such asanimated stories, games, and interactive art, they willdevelop technological fluency, mathematical andproblem solving skills, and a justifiable self-confidencethat will serve them well in the wider spheres of theirlives.

Scratch: a sneak preview [education]

Scratch is a networked, media-rich programming environment designed to enhance the development of technological fluency at after-school centers in economically-disadvantaged communities. Just as the LEGO MindStorms robotics kit added programmability to an activity deeply rooted in youth culture (building with LEGO bricks), Scratch adds programmability to the media-rich and network-based activities that are most popular among youth at after-school computer centers. Taking advantage of the extraordinary processing power of current computers, Scratch supports programming paradigms and activities that were previously infeasible, making it better positioned to succeed than previous attempts to introduce programming to youth. Our working hypothesis is that, as kids work on personally meaningful Scratch projects such as animated stories, games, and interactive art, they develop technological fluency, mathematical and problem solving skills, and a justifiable self-confidence that serves them well in the wider spheres of their lives.

From Stress to Learning: Attachment Theory Meets Goal Orientation Theory

Few investigators have explored connections between attachment theory and goal orientation theory. Although the theories differ in important ways, we suggest there is a striking similarity in their depiction of an adaptive pathway leading from stress to learning goals and constructive strategies, and a contrasting pathway leading from stress to self-validation goals and defensive strategies. We review evidence from two leading investigators—Mario Mikulincer in adult attachment theory and Carol Dweck in goal orientation theory—to show that, following failure and other setbacks, learning as compared to self-validation goals are more likely to lead to cognitive openness, problem-solving, support-seeking, and adaptive emotion regulation. The theories differ in their understanding of the views underlying learning and self-validation goals, and those differences have led to qualitatively different interventions. We suggest how attachment and goal orientation theory interventions can be integrated to maximize optimal functioning in stressful conditions.

How goals and beliefs lead people into and out of depression.

There is evidence that beliefs (cognitive vulnerabilities) and goals (to prove self-worth) contribute to depression but little consideration of how they work in tandem. Synthesizing research on beliefs and goals leads us to four propositions: (a) People with cognitive vulnerabilities often adopt self-worth goals (seeking to prove self-worth and to avoid proof of worthlessness). People with the opposite beliefs often adopt learning goals. (b) Stressors trigger depression largely because they lead people with self-worth goals to focus narrowly on goals to avoid proof of worthlessness. The same stressors do not lead people with learning goals to become depressed. (c) People with goals to avoid proof of worthlessness adopt defensive self-handicapping behaviors (e.g., effort withdrawal, rumination) when dealing with stressors, because those behaviors serve their goals. The same stressors lead people with learning goals to adopt constructive, problem-solving strategies. (d) A key to alleviating depression is fostering a shift from self-worth goals to learning goals and from the beliefs underlying self-worth goals to the opposite beliefs.

Positive youth development in organized programs: How teens learn to manage emotions

Organized youth programs provide opportunities for adolescents to develop life and career skills while working on real-world projects, such as planning community events or creating public service announcements. In this chapter, we focus on adolescents’ development of skills for managing emotions. We first discuss how youth learn strategies for handling emotions that arise in their work on projects, and then look at how adult program leaders facilitate youth’s learning. Key findings from our qualitative research are that youth learn about emotions through active, conscious processes of observing and analyzing their experiences; and they learn not only to regulate frustration, anger, and worry, but also to use the functional aspects of these emotions in constructive ways. Program leaders facilitate youth’s active learning process through emotion coaching – helping youth reflect on unfolding emotional episodes, consider alternative strategies, and persist in problem solving. The chapter shows how effective organized programs provide rich affordances for positive youth development.

Supporting Diverse and Creative Collaboration in the Scratch Online Community

This chapter explores the diverse and creative collaboration in the Scratch online community, where young people can create and share interactive media such as animations, games, and stories with people all over the world. Scratch enables creative collaboration, with more than 130,000 youth each month participating to design, build, and invent shared artifacts. Since Scratch was launched in 2007, Scratch members have engaged in a wide variety of collaborative activities, which include building on each other’s projects, role-playing to imagine new worlds together, maintaining communities of interests, and coordinating large groups to produce sophisticated projects. We describe the varied and emergent collaborative activities through five stories, and we describe the ways in which youth are learning by designing, motivated by their interests and supported by community. We conclude by reflecting on the lessons we have learned to support these emergent and diverse activities.