Nathan Gale

Exploring the anchor-point hypothesis of spatial cognition*

Abstract The anchor-point hypothesis of spatial cognition, according to which primary nodes or reference points anchor distinct regions in cognitive space, brings together certain frequently reported apparent properties of mental maps: the regionalization and hierarchical organization of cognitive space, and the active role of salient cues in structuring spatial cognition. After a brief overview of the state of the art in cognitive mapping research, the anchor-point hypothesis is first explored conceptually, and then one particular version of it, the ‘tectonic plates’ hypothesis, is made operational. For that second part of the study, cognitive configurations derived from five subjects selected from a larger sample taken in Goleta, California are analyzed using three different methods, and features transcending any method-specific biases are identified. Although not entirely unambiguous, these first results seem encouraging and warrant further research in this direction.

The acquisition and integration of route knowledge in an unfamiliar neighborhood

Abstract This paper investigates the acquisition of neighborhood route knowledge by children of ages 9–12. Subjects were exposed to two routes through an unfamiliar suburban neighborhood, with five learning trials undertaken on each route. One route was acquired by actual field experience, while the other was acquired by viewing a video tape. Route knowledge acquisition was tested by performance on navigation, sketch mapping, and scene recognition tasks. Mode of experience had little effect on recognition performance; however, navigation performance following five video trials was inferior and approximated that of children with only one trial of field experience. These data support the differentiation of knowledge types and the need to engage in route navigation to proceduralize such knowledge.

Integrating route knowledge in an unfamiliar neighborhood: along and across route experiments

This experiment was designed to examine how information obtained by learning two separate but partially overlapping routes in a relatively unfamiliar environment is integrated to provide locational, directional, and layout information about environmental features. The subject group was equally divided between adult males and females. A mixed land-use environment was chosen as the setting. The two partially overlapping routes were learned under uni- or bidirectional presentation conditions. Sequencing, distancing, and pointing tasks were used to access on-route and cross-route spatial knowledge. Various performance measures showed that when routes were learned bidirectionally performance was poorer. Results of cross-route pointing tasks indicated that integration of information had been achieved only marginally even though within-route sequence and distance information had been acquired at a reasonable level of proficiency. No gender differences were observed on any of the tasks. In general, the results raise a number of questions about the process of constructing representations of large-scale spaces and point out the difficulty effecting an integration of knowledge both within and across routes.

Unclassed matrix shading and optimal ordering in hierarchical cluster analysis

A method is presented for the graphic display of proximity matrices as a complement to the common data analysis techniques of hierarchical clustering. The procedure involves the use of computer generated shaded matrices based on unclassed choropleth mapping in conjunction with a strategy for matrix reorganization. The latter incorporates a combination of techniques for seriation and the ordering of binary trees.

Mapping regional settlement in information space

Abstract Determining patterns of settlement interaction in the absence of direct evidence is an important consideration in regionally oriented archaeological inquiry. In the following study we introduce the concepts of alternative spaces, and transformed map representations of these spaces, as possible approaches to this problem. The southern Basin of Mexico is examined as a particular case in point, with settlement pattern maps developed in travel time space for the Late Formative through Late Toltec occupations in this region. Through arranging sites in terms of their accessibility to one another, such maps provide a foundation for systematically proposing groups of interacting settlements in each time period examined. The proposed patterns of spatial affiliation are used to explore the role of information processing in the sociopolitical evolution of the southern basin.

A Case for Better Graphics: The Unclassed Choropleth Map

Abstract In recent years a number of researchers have shown a strong interest in statistical graphics. One widely used graphical method is the “statistical map,” or what is better known in cartography as the choropleth map. A factor in the use of these maps has been the need to group data into classes, raising the obvious question of defining optimum class intervals. Computer technology now makes it possible to produce unclassed choropleth maps, minimizing quantization error. An example of the two methods is given using criminal justice statistics. The unclassed maps are more accurate with regard to quantization error and appear to be of superior visual quality

Tests of Randomness: Unidimensional and Multidimensional:

A variety of tests for randomness are reviewed based on simple product—moment statistics defined between two matrices, {aij} and {bij}. Typically, the first matrix, {aij}, contains proximity data on the spatial placement of n observations, {x1….xn} the second matrix, {bij}, is obtained from the relationships among the n observations themselves. Depending on the definitions of {aij} and {bij}, a variety of well-known tests of randomness and/or trend (those attributed to Mann, Daniels, Moore and Wallis, Cox and Stuart, and Goodman and Grunfeld) as well as various approaches to serial correlation and spatial autocorrelation can be encompassed. Finally, these notions of randomness can be extended to an assessment of spatial association between two variables. A numerical example is given within this latter context.

Population and productivity in the teotihuacan valley: Changing patterns of spatial association in prehispanic central Mexico

Abstract Since its emergence earlier this century, cultural ecology has played a key role in attempts to understand the complex interrelations between cultural and environmental systems. Although rarely examined, a crucial aspect of cultural adaptation is the explicit spatial relationship between the distribution of human populations and the various resources available to them. In the following essay, we examine this particular question in terms of regional subsistence potential with settlement system remains from the Middle Horizon (Classic) and Late Horizon (Aztec) periods in the Teotihuacan Valley, Mexico. As a first step, traditional measures of association (Pearsons, Spearmans, and Kendalls) are employed to assess the point-to-point relationships between population and productivity potential. Then, recently developed randomization procedures are introduced and applied to evaluate the spatial association of these two variables. The results of these complementary avenues of analysis help to increase our understanding of the role of space in the cultural ecology of the prehispanic Teotihuacan Valley. In addition, they reaffirm the potentially powerful impact of cultural mechanisms on strategies of regional adaptation.

A generalized procedure for comparing models of spatial choice

A major concern of geographers has been the explanation and prediction of spatial choice behavior. Several discrete choice models have been developed which attempt to account for the use of different transport routes, modes, shopping centers, and so on. One of the fundamental issues associated with these models is the problem of model specification; furthermore, each type of model can potentially give disparate results for the same spatial choice situation. In this paper the models and their characteristics are summarized, and a generalized method for comparing the results yielded by alternative model specifications, or results obtained from different model formulations, are presented. The procedure is an application of recent developments in heuristic methods for comparing related matrices.