Nicholas V. Passalacqua

The value and availability of forensic anthropological consultation in medicolegal death investigations

Forensic anthropological analysis is a valuable component of medicolegal death investigations. Like many other forensic sciences, forensic anthropology has become increasingly sophisticated in recent years, requiring qualified practitioners to complete intensive and long-term postgraduate study. In addition, forensic anthropology has experienced a recent increase in interest (facilitated in part by increased media attention), with the result that many are now much more aware of the nature and value of forensic anthropological services. While the number of qualified and certified forensic anthropologists is increasing, a misconception by a few in the medicolegal community that the numbers of forensic anthropologists cannot properly meet the consultation needs of medical examiner and coroner offices appears to exist, and moreover that anthropological services are often cost-prohibitive. Here we present an overview of the current state of forensic anthropology, including the typically available services, education and training requirements, as well as some information and suggestions for ways in which forensic pathologists and coroners can seek forensic anthropological consultation. Forensic pathology and forensic anthropology are both highly specialized fields with extensive education and training requirements, and a collaborative approach results in the most reliable and scientifically accurate forensic results. This collaboration is eminently achievable. Forensic anthropology is the science of applying anthropological method and theory to matters of medicolegal concern. Many are familiar with the traditional uses of forensic anthropology including estimation of the biological profile (age, sex, ancestry, stature) from unknown skeletal remains and the assessment of skeletal trauma. The science of forensic anthropology, however, has experienced a significant increase in sophistication and breadth in recent years. Depending on the training and interests of the individual anthropologist, as well as the resources of the institution by which they are employed, anthropological examinations may include search and recovery of human remains, the determination of skeletal versus non-skeletal origin, the determination of human versus non-human origin, the assessment of forensic significance of human remains, estimation of various biological parameters (including sex, age, ancestry, stature, as well as skeletal anomalies, pathologies and other conditions), trauma analysis, and personal identification (typically by radiographic comparison). Disclaimer: The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the FBI, Department of Defense, or the U.S. Government.

Investigations Into Age-related Changes in the Human Mandible†,‡

While changes in mandibular shape over time are not widely recognized by skeletal biologists, mandibular remodeling and associated changes in gross morphology may result from a number of causes related to mechanical stress such as antemortem tooth loss, changes in bite force, or alterations of masticatory performance. This study investigated the relationship between age‐related changes and antemortem tooth loss in adult humans via dry bone measurements. This study examined 10 standard mandibular measurements as well as individual antemortem tooth loss scores using the Eichner Index from a total of 319 female and male individuals with ages ranging from 16 to 99 years. Results indicate that few mandibular measurements exhibited age‐related changes, and most were affected by antemortem tooth loss.

Beyond Taphonomy: Exploring Craniometric Variation Among Anatomical Material.

Anatomical crania are occasionally encountered in forensic anthropology laboratories when that material is mistaken for forensically significant human remains. Using craniometric analyses and statistical measures of sample homogeneity, we determine whether anatomical material can be described as a single, homogenous group or as a diverse mix of populations. Twenty‐one interlandmark distances were collected from 85 anatomical preparations. Distance measures were calculated between all pairs using a pooled within‐sample variance/covariance matrix and then subjected to a Defrise‐Gussenhoven test between each paired distance to test whether each pair was drawn randomly from the same population. In the Defrise‐Gussenhoven analysis, twenty‐two percent (n = 66) of the 300 pairwise combinations were significant at the 0.05 level or below. The level of homogeneity suggests a majority of that material originated from the subcontinent of India or West Asia. Therefore, anatomical material can be viewed as a moderately homogenous group, but with a shared taphonomic history.

Contemporary Issues in Forensic Anthropology

Forensic anthropology is an evolving discipline that continues to broaden in both depth and scope. Forensic anthropologists work within an interdisciplinary framework in which a skeletal analysis is usually a single component of a much larger investigation. In recent years, forensic anthropologists have expanded from domestic casework to mass disaster victim identification efforts, international human rights investigations, and the identification of undocumented border crosses (e.g., Mexican nationals).

Osteology and Odontology

The practice of forensic anthropology requires intimate knowledge of the human skeleton including various anatomical planes of reference, the features of skeletal tissue at various structural levels, the names of bones and teeth and locations of certain features, and the ability to differentiate between left and right bones (for paired bones). This chapter provides an overview of human osteology and odontology including anatomical terminology, histology, and functions of the skeletal system. Bones and selected features are presented including those of the cranium, axial skeleton, and appendicular skeleton.

Introduction to Forensic Anthropology

Membership in, or at least familiarity with, various professional organizations is critical to the successful practice of forensic anthropology. Aspiring practitioners should also be aware of the variety of career paths available for forensic anthropologists. This chapter familiarizes students with various employment options for forensic anthropologists including work in museums, universities, government laboratories, and humanitarian organizations. This chapter also introduces some of the professional organizations most relevant to the field of forensic anthropology including the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, the American Board of Forensic Anthropology, and the Organization of Scientific Area Committees.

Other Issues in Modern Forensic Anthropology and Final Case Study

In addition to the primary areas discussed in the previous chapters, knowledge of additional topics related to evidence, documentation, research methods, and other areas is often essential to forensic anthropology practitioners. This chapter reviews the role of forensic anthropology within broader contexts including the legal system, the media, research, and evidence analysis. This chapter also includes a final comprehensive exercise.

Forensic Archaeology and Scene Processing

Forensic archaeology is the application of archaeological theory and methods to medicolegal cases, including searching for, locating, surveying, sampling, recording, and interpreting evidence, as well as the recovery and documentation of human remains and associated evidence. This chapter covers the processes of performing searches for remains, documenting a recovery scene, and properly collecting and packaging evidentiary items, including skeletal remains and other evidence.

Processing and Preparing Remains

When skeletal remains are presented with adhering substances such as soft tissue or soil, they can be removed by a number of approaches referred to as skeletal processing. Processing techniques may include dissection, disarticulation, maceration, or the use of carrion insects or chemicals. In cases where skeletal remains are fragmented due to trauma or postmortem events, reconstruction of the fragments may be beneficial to anthropological assessments and interpretations. If the remains are commingled, they can be segregated through inventory, sorting by side and biological indicators, pair-matching, articulation, osteometric sorting, and taphonomy. The minimum or likely number of individuals can then be estimated based on the number of duplicated bones and/or pair-matched bones. Anthropologists may be responsible for selecting bones for DNA sampling, which should only take place after anthropological assessments are complete, and should avoid areas that involve trauma or pathology. In cases where remains are retained for long periods of time, consideration should be given to how the remains are handled and stored in order to avoid accidental damage or commingling.

Analysis of Skeletal Trauma

Skeletal trauma can be characterized by its timing in relation to the death event as well as the mechanism that caused the trauma. Bones are objects that obey physical laws and understanding bones response to force can help interpret how fractures may have occurred. The primary forces that cause skeletal fractures are compression, tension, bending, shear, and torsion.