Nick D. Brown

The Role of Informal Protected Areas in Maintaining Biodiversity in the Western Ghats of India

Although it is widely believed that an important function of protected areas is to conserve species that are unable to survive elsewhere, there are very few empirical studies in which a comparison is made between biodiversity of protected areas and that of the cultivated landscape surrounding them. We examined the diversity of trees, birds, and macrofungi at 58 sites in three land-use types in a tree-covered landscape in Kodagu district in the Western Ghats of India. Ten forest reserve sites in the formal protected area, and 25 sacred groves and 23 coffee plantations in the neighboring cultivated landscape were sampled. A total of 215 tree, 86 bird, and 163 macrofungus species were recorded. The forest reserve had a large number of trees that were restricted in their distribution, and the sacred groves had a large number of macrofungi. We observed that deciduous trees and non-forest-dwelling birds increased, and evergreen trees and forest-dwelling birds decreased with increasing intensity of land management. We found that trees having non-timber uses and macrofungi useful to the local people, as well as those with medicinal properties, were abundant in sacred groves. We found no significant differences in the distribution of endemic and threatened birds across the three land-use types. Although endemic trees were more abundant in the forest reserve than in sacred groves, threatened trees were more abundant in sacred groves than in the forest reserve. We attribute the high diversity in sacred groves to the native tree cover in shade coffee plantations. We conclude that informal protected areas are as important as formal ones for biodiversity conservation in Kodagu. We recommend that a conservation strategy that recognizes informal protection traditions is essential for successful biodiversity conservation in regions where formal reserves are surrounded by a matrix of cultivated land.

Photosynthetic characteristics of dipterocarp seedlings in three tropical rain forest light environments: a basis for niche partitioning?

Abstract In three tropical rain forest light environments in Sabah, Malaysia, we compared photosynthesis in seedlings of ten climax tree species with putatively differing shade tolerances. The objectives of the study were (a) to characterise the range of photosynthetic responses in ten species of the Dipterocarpaceae and (b) to elucidate those photosynthetic characteristics that might provide a basis for niche partitioning. Seedlings were acclimated (c. 7 months) in three light environments; understorey, partial shade and a gap (140 m2). The light environments represented a gradation in median diurnal (0630–1830 hours) photon flux density (PFD) ranging from understorey (4.7 μmol m−2 s−1), through partial shade (21.2 μmol m−2 s−1) to gap (113.7 μmol m−2 s−1). Integrated diurnal PFD were in the sequence gap > partial shade > understorey (15.2, 4.7, 1.3 mol m−2 day−1, respectively). In gap-acclimated plants, species differed in the photosynthetic light-response variables apparent quantum yield, dark respiration rate, light compensation point, net saturated leaf assimilation rate (Asat), and in stomatal conductance (gs sat) when assimilation rate (A) was saturated. A light-demanding pioneer species (Macaranga hypoleuca) and a shade-demanding understorey species (Begonia sp.) had, respectively, higher and lower Asat and gs sat than the dipterocarp species. In high-light conditions Asat and gs sat were strongly positively correlated in dipterocarp species. Differing photosynthetic characteristics of gap-acclimated plants suggest that, in these dipterocarp species, different rates of carbon fixation may be an important factor contributing towards niche partitioning. Mean integrated diurnal A (Adiurnal) in the gap, partial shade and understory were, respectively, 122.9, 52.7, 20.5 mmol m−2 day−1. Differences occurred in Adiurnal of dipterocarp species between light environments. When Macaranga was included, differences in Adiurnal were evident in the gap and partial shade, and in both cases were attributed to the pioneer. For the variable Adiurnal, there was of a shift in the rank position of Macaranga among light environments, but a shift did not occur among the dipterocarp species. Results from this study are consistent with the idea that rates of carbon fixation per unit leaf area may contribute towards niche differentiation between the climax and single pioneer species, but not within the group of climax species. Other physiological and/or carbon allocation factors may be involved in any niche partitioning; dipterocarp species often have inherently different growth rates and susceptibility to herbivory. As an alternative to niche partitioning, dipterocarp species may co-exist in natural light environments as a result of habitat disequilibrium or purely stochastic processes.

Ecology provides a pragmatic solution to the maintenance of genetic diversity in sustainably managed tropical rain forests

Abstract An important aspect of the sustainable management of tropical rain forests is the maintenance of genetic diversity within populations of commercial tree species. Logging may reduce genetic variation directly and may also affect genetic processes, leading possibly to genetic erosion and ultimately even species extinction. It is, however, impractical for the forest manager to make meaningful measurements of genetic variation and they are therefore inappropriate for use as indicators of sustainable forest management. We propose that the application of well-known silvicultural principles is the most practical way of preventing rapid loss of genetic diversity. Most tropical rain forest tree species have many more individuals below the minimum size for commercial exploitation than above. The genetic diversity of these species will be little affected by logging, as the stems removed form only a small fraction of the total population. Similarly, for most species, disruption of normal mating patterns will either not occur or be transient, because reproduction commences at sizes well below felling limits, or because, after logging, juveniles will be recruited to the sexually mature size classes. Strongly light-demanding species with a commercial value are most likely to suffer loss of genetic diversity from logging. Characteristically, these have populations in which only a small proportion of the total population lies in small size classes. In order to conserve genetic diversity, pre-felling silvicultural treatments will be required to increase the survival and growth of juveniles. Ecological and genetic research needs to focus on these light-demanding species.

The effect of fertilizer application on dipterocarp seedling growth and mycorrhizal infection.

Abstract In three independent experiments, application of fertilizers had no effect on the growth of dipterocarp seedlings. The experiments involved application of: (1) NPK at a rate of 10 gm−2 N, P2O5 and K2O to Shorea macroptera Dyer seedlings grown in pots of forest soil under nursery conditions in Penang, Malaysia; (2) N at a rate of 10 g m−2 and/or P at a rate of 5 g m−2 in a factorial design to 8-month-old Shorea curtisii Dyer ex King seedlings growing wild in coastal hill dipterocarp forest in Penang, Malaysia; (3) NKP at a rate of 10 g m−2 three times over 10 months to Hopea beccariana Burck seedlings growing wild in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest in Sabah, Malaysia. In Experiment 1, fertilizer application significantly increased the extent of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) infection of the S. macroptera roots, and fertiliezed seedlings. These preliminary results suggest that dipterocarp seedlings may only be responsive to fertilizer addition when grown at very low nutrient availabilities, and that ECM infection may be of great importance to seedling growth under such conditions.

Company-Community Logging Contracts in Amazonian Settlements: Impacts on Livelihoods and NTFP Harvests

As a result of government-sponsored colonization, more than 500 000 km2 of the Brazilian Amazon is managed by settlement households. By law, 80% of this land must remain as standing forest. In this study, we examine the potential for timber harvesting through company-community partnerships (CCPs) as a means to increase forest-based revenue without compromising household use of non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Using participatory rural appraisal, resource diaries, and household questionnaires, we study the impacts of CCP logging contracts on livelihoods, including household income and NTFP harvests. Our results show that annual household income from the CCP logging is equivalent to more than 8 years of household gross income from agricultural production. We also found that there were no significant differences in NTFP harvests between households with CCP logging and those without. In CCP-logging communities, households caught 11.9 ± 13.6 game animals, totaling 74 ± 88 kg of game meat. In the communities without CCP, households caught 9.5 ± 13.0 game animals, totaling 73 ± 172 kg of game meat. Annual forest fruit harvests averaged 9.8 ± 13.2 kg in CCP-logging communities and 13.5 ± 15.9 kg in non-CCP communities. Overall, the CCPs brought improvements in household income without compromising NTFP harvests.

Effectiveness of Community Forestry in Prey Long Forest, Cambodia

Cambodia has 57% forest cover, the second highest in the Greater Mekong region, and a high deforestation rate (1.2%/year, 2005-2010). Community forestry (CF) has been proposed as a way to reduce deforestation and support livelihoods through local management of forests. CF is expanding rapidly in Cambodia. The National Forests Program aims to designate one million hectares of forest to CF by 2030. However, the effectiveness of CF in conservation is not clear due to a global lack of controlled comparisons, multiple meanings of CF, and the context-specific nature of CF implementation. We assessed the effectiveness of CF by comparing 9 CF sites with paired controls in state production forest in the area of Prey Long forest, Cambodia. We assessed forest condition in 18-20 randomly placed variable-radius plots and fixed-area regeneration plots. We surveyed 10% of households in each of the 9 CF villages to determine the proportion that used forest products, as a measure of household dependence on the forest. CF sites had fewer signs of anthropogenic damage (cut stems, stumps, and burned trees), higher aboveground biomass, more regenerating stems, and reduced canopy openness than control areas. Abundance of economically valuable species, however, was higher in control sites. We used survey results and geographic parameters to model factors affecting CF outcomes. Interaction between management type, CF or control, and forest dependence indicated that CF was more effective in cases where the community relied on forest products for subsistence use and income.

Reliable Forest Carbon Monitoring — Systematic Reviews as a Tool for Validating the Knowledge Base

SUMMARY With global carbon credits valued at over US

A Landscape Approach to Biodiversity Conservation of Sacred Groves in the Western Ghats of India

100 billion/year, accounting under REDD will drive demand for high quality forest monitoring systems. The choice of system to adopt should be guided by good science. The adequacy and comparability of different national systems for forest carbon measurement under REDD have not been fully evaluated. There is a growing body of scientific and technical information on ground-based and remote-sensing methods of carbon measurement. This extensive, often conflicting, knowledge base has not been systematically reviewed in the transparent, readily-repeatable manner consistent with evidence-based practice. This paper argues that such an approach, regarded in medicine as the gold standard for evidence evaluation, is long overdue in forestry generally and carbon monitoring and assessment specifically. Preliminary findings from an international project set up to scope the potential for a systematic review approach indicate that this evidence-based approach would add value to REDD implementation.