Nick J. Proudfoot

Integrating mRNA Processing with Transcription

The messenger RNA processing reactions of capping, splicing, and polyadenylation occur cotranscriptionally. They not only influence one anothers efficiency and specificity, but are also coordinated by transcription. The phosphorylated CTD of RNA polymerase II provides key molecular contacts with these mRNA processing reactions throughout transcriptional elongation and termination.

Human Senataxin Resolves RNA/DNA Hybrids Formed at Transcriptional Pause Sites to Promote Xrn2-Dependent Termination

Summary We present a molecular dissection of pause site-dependent transcriptional termination for mammalian RNA polymerase II (Pol II)-transcribed genes. We show that nascent transcripts form RNA/DNA hybrid structures (R-loops) behind elongating Pol II and are especially prevalent over G-rich pause sites positioned downstream of gene poly(A) signals. Senataxin, a helicase protein associated with AOA2/ALS4 neurodegenerative disorders, acts to resolve these R-loop structures and by so doing allows access of the 5′–3′ exonuclease Xrn2 at 3′ cleavage poly(A) sites. This affords 3′ transcript degradation and consequent Pol II termination. In effect, R-loops formed over G-rich pause sites, followed by their resolution by senataxin, are key steps in the termination process.

Human 5′ → 3′ exonuclease Xrn2 promotes transcription termination at co-transcriptional cleavage sites

Eukaryotic protein-encoding genes possess poly(A) signals that define the end of the messenger RNA and mediate downstream transcriptional termination by RNA polymerase II (Pol II). Termination could occur through an ‘anti-termination’ mechanism whereby elongation factors dissociate when the poly(A) signal is encountered, producing termination-competent Pol II. An alternative ‘torpedo’ model postulated that poly(A) site cleavage provides an unprotected RNA 5′ end that is degraded by 5′ → 3′ exonuclease activities (torpedoes) and so induces dissociation of Pol II from the DNA template. This model has been questioned because unprocessed transcripts read all the way to the site of transcriptional termination before upstream polyadenylation. However, nascent transcripts located 1 kilobase downstream of the human β-globin gene poly(A) signal are associated with a co-transcriptional cleavage (CoTC) activity that acts with the poly(A) signal to elicit efficient transcriptional termination. The CoTC sequence is an autocatalytic RNA structure that undergoes rapid self-cleavage. Here we show that CoTC acts as a precursor to termination by presenting a free RNA 5′ end that is recognized by the human 5′ → 3′ exonuclease Xrn2. Degradation of the downstream cleavage product by Xrn2 results in transcriptional termination, as envisaged in the torpedo model.

Gene loops juxtapose promoters and terminators in yeast

Mechanistic analysis of transcriptional initiation and termination by RNA polymerase II (PolII) indicates that some factors are common to both processes. Here we show that two long genes of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, FMP27 and SEN1, exist in a looped conformation, effectively bringing together their promoter and terminator regions. We also show that PolII is located at both ends of FMP27 when this gene is transcribed from a GAL1 promoter under induced and noninduced conditions. Under these conditions, the C-terminal domain of the large subunit of PolII is phosphorylated at Ser5. Notably, inactivation of Kin28p causes a loss of both Ser5 phosphorylation and the loop conformation. These data suggest that gene loops are involved in the early stages of transcriptional activation. They also predict a previously unknown structural dimension to gene regulation, in which both ends of the transcription unit are defined before and during the transcription cycle.

Primary microRNA transcripts are processed co-transcriptionally

microRNAs (miRNAs) are generated from long primary (pri-) RNA polymerase II (Pol II)–derived transcripts by two RNase III processing reactions: Drosha cleavage of nuclear pri-miRNAs and Dicer cleavage of cytoplasmic pre-miRNAs. Here we show that Drosha cleavage occurs during transcription acting on both independently transcribed and intron-encoded miRNAs. We also show that both 5′-3′ and 3′-5′ exonucleases associate with the sites where co-transcriptional Drosha cleavage occurs, promoting intron degradation before splicing. We finally demonstrate that miRNAs can also derive from 3` flanking transcripts of Pol II genes. Our results demonstrate that multiple miRNA-containing transcripts are co-transcriptionally cleaved during their synthesis and suggest that exonucleolytic degradation from Drosha cleavage sites in pre-mRNAs may influence the splicing and maturation of numerous mRNAs.

Jmjd6 Catalyses Lysyl-Hydroxylation of U2AF65, a Protein Associated with RNA Splicing

Modifying the Modifier Covalent modification of proteins provides an important means whereby their function is regulated. Hydroxylation, catalyzed by oxygenase enzymes, plays an important role in the response to hypoxia, for example. The human protein Jmjd6 has been thought to act as an oxygenase, catalyzing the demethylation of histone H3 at arginine-2 and histone H4 at arginine-3. Webby et al. (p. 90) now show that Jmjd6 interacts with the messenger RNA splicing factor U2AF65 and acts to hydroxylate this protein at lysine residues, modifications also seen in vivo. Furthermore, Jmjd6 modulates the alternative splicing of both an endogenous gene and an introduced mini-gene. An oxygenase with an important role in vertebrate development hydroxylates a messenger RNA splicing factor. The finding that the metazoan hypoxic response is regulated by oxygen-dependent posttranslational hydroxylations, which regulate the activity and lifetime of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF), has raised the question of whether other hydroxylases are involved in the regulation of gene expression. We reveal that the splicing factor U2 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein auxiliary factor 65-kilodalton subunit (U2AF65) undergoes posttranslational lysyl-5-hydroxylation catalyzed by the Fe(II) and 2-oxoglutarate–dependent dioxygenase Jumonji domain-6 protein (Jmjd6). Jmjd6 is a nuclear protein that has an important role in vertebrate development and is a human homolog of the HIF asparaginyl-hydroxylase. Jmjd6 is shown to change alternative RNA splicing of some, but not all, of the endogenous and reporter genes, supporting a specific role for Jmjd6 in the regulation of RNA splicing.

The structure of the human zeta-globin gene and a closely linked, nearly identical pseudogene

DNA sequencing studies indicate that only one of two closely linked human embryonic alpha-like globin genes, zeta (zeta), encodes a functional polypeptide. The other is a pseudogene (psi zeta) that differs by only 3 bp in the protein coding sequence, one of which converts the codon for amino acid 6 into a chain termination codon. Both zeta-globin genes differ from all other alpha-like genes thus far reported in that they contain large introns consisting, in part, of simple repeat sequences. Intron 1 of each gene contains a variation of the repeat sequence ACAGTGGGGAGGGG, while intron 2 contains the repeat sequence CGGGG. Comparison of the human zeta- and alpha-globin gene sequences reveals that the embryonic and adult alpha-like genes began to diverge from each other relatively early in vertebrate evolution (400 million years ago). In contrast, the beta-like embryonic globin gene, epsilon (epsilon), is the product of a much more recent evolutionary event (200 million years ago). Thus, even though the temporal and quantitative expression of zeta- and epsilon-globin genes must be coordinately controlled during development, their evolutionary histories are clearly distinct.

Transcriptional collision between convergent genes in budding yeast.

Transcriptional interference between genes and the regulatory elements of simple eukaryotes such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an unavoidable consequence of their compressed genetic arrangement. We have shown previously that with the tandem arranged genes GAL10 and GAL7, inefficient transcriptional termination of the upstream gene inhibits initiation of transcription on the downstream gene. We now show that transcriptional interference can occur also with S. cerevisiae RNA polymerase II genes arranged convergently. We demonstrate that when the GAL10 and GAL7 genes are rearranged in a convergent orientation, transcriptional initiation occurs at full levels. However, as soon as the two transcripts begin to overlap, elongation is restricted, resulting in a severe reduction in steady-state mRNA accumulation. This effect is observed only in cis arrangement, arguing against RNA-interference effects acting on the potential generation of antisense transcripts. These data reinforce the necessity of separating adjacent RNA polymerase II transcription units by efficient termination signals.

U1 snRNA associates with TFIIH and regulates transcriptional initiation

Diverse classes of noncoding RNA, including small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs), play fundamental regulatory roles at many stages of gene expression. For example, recent studies have implicated 7SK RNA and components of the splicing apparatus in the regulation of transcriptional elongation. Here we present the first evidence of the involvement of an snRNA in the regulation of transcriptional initiation. We demonstrate that TFIIH, a general transcription initiation factor, specifically associates with U1 snRNA, a core-splicing component. Analysis of the TFIIH-dependent stages of transcription in a reconstituted system demonstrates that U1 stimulates the rate of formation of the first phosphodiester bond by RNA polymerase II. In addition, a promoter-proximal 5′ splice site recognized by U1 snRNA stimulates TFIIH-dependent reinitiation of productive transcription. Our results suggest that U1 snRNA functions in regulating transcription by RNA Polymerase II in addition to its role in RNA processing.

Yeast Sen1 Helicase Protects the Genome from Transcription-Associated Instability

Summary Sen1 of S. cerevisiae is a known component of the NRD complex implicated in transcription termination of nonpolyadenylated as well as some polyadenylated RNA polymerase II transcripts. We now show that Sen1 helicase possesses a wider function by restricting the occurrence of RNA:DNA hybrids that may naturally form during transcription, when nascent RNA hybridizes to DNA prior to its packaging into RNA protein complexes. These hybrids displace the nontranscribed strand and create R loop structures. Loss of Sen1 results in transient R loop accumulation and so elicits transcription-associated recombination. SEN1 genetically interacts with DNA repair genes, suggesting that R loop resolution requires proteins involved in homologous recombination. Based on these findings, we propose that R loop formation is a frequent event during transcription and a key function of Sen1 is to prevent their accumulation and associated genome instability.