Nicky Milner

Something fishy in the Neolithic? A re-evaluation of stable isotope analysis of Mesolithic and Neolithic coastal populations

The study of the proportions of stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen which survive in ancient human and animal bones offers highly suggestive indications of ancient diets. Among the most remarkable results from such investigations is the dramatic change in diet which is thought to have occurred between the Mesolithic and the Neolithic when people turned from maritime to terrestrial food, from fish to meat and vegetables. The three contributions which follow challenge, modify, enhance or reflect on this model. In a pivotal critique of the evidence from Britain and Denmark, Milner et al. present a range of explanations for the signals of a maritime or terrestrial emphasis in diet and conclude that the change need not have been either rapid or total. Liden et al. show that, in southern Sweden, the preferences for fish over meat were related less to period or culture, but (reasonably enough) to location: fish-eaters live by the sea. Finally Robert Hedges takes up the question of partial marine diets and how to detect them, developing the idea that marine diets might give a fainter signal in people who were only getting small amounts of protein. Perhaps there were many such people in the new order of the Neolithic …

Substantial settlement in the European Early Mesolithic: new research at Star Carr

The authors rewrite the character of Early Mesolithic settlement in Europe with their new research at one of its most famous sites. The picture of small mobile pioneering groups colonising new land is thrown into contention: far from being a small hunter-gatherer camp, Star Carr in 9000 cal BC extended for nearly 2ha and involved the construction of an estimated 30m of lakeside waterfront and at least one post-built house. With some justice, they suspect that the ‘small groups’ of Early Mesolithic Europe may have their rationale in the small excavations of archaeologists.

Technological Analysis of the World's Earliest Shamanic Costume: A Multi-Scalar, Experimental Study of a Red Deer Headdress from the Early Holocene Site of Star Carr, North Yorkshire, UK

Shamanic belief systems represent the first form of religious practice visible within the global archaeological record. Here we report on the earliest known evidence of shamanic costume: modified red deer crania headdresses from the Early Holocene site of Star Carr (c. 11 kya). More than 90% of the examples from prehistoric Europe come from this one site, establishing it as a place of outstanding shamanistic/cosmological significance. Our work, involving a programme of experimental replication, analysis of macroscopic traces, organic residue analysis and 3D image acquisition, metrology and visualisation, represents the first attempt to understand the manufacturing processes used to create these artefacts. The results produced were unexpected—rather than being carefully crafted objects, elements of their production can only be described as expedient.

Intra-crystalline protein diagenesis (IcPD) in Patella vulgata. Part I: Isolation and testing of the closed system

This study successfully isolates a fraction of intra-crystalline proteins from shells of the marine gastropod Patella vulgata and assesses the suitability of these proteins for IcPD (Intra-crystalline Protein Diagenesis) geochronology. We discuss the mineralogical composition of this gastropod, investigated for the first time by X-ray diffraction mapping, and use the results to inform our sampling strategy. The potential of the calcitic rim and of a bulk sample (containing both apex and rim) of the shell to act as stable repositories for the intra-crystalline proteins during diagenesis is examined. The composition and the diagenetic behaviour of the intra-crystalline proteins isolated from different locations within the shell are compared, highlighting the necessity of targeting consistent sampling positions. We induced artificial diagenesis of both intra-crystalline and whole-shell proteins by conducting high-temperature experiments in hydrous environment; this allowed us to quantify the loss of amino acids by leaching and therefore evaluate the open- or closed-system behaviour of the different fractions of proteins. The results obtained provide further confirmation that patterns of diagenesis vary according to the protein sequence, structure, and location within or outside the intra-crystalline fraction. As Patella is frequently found in the fossil record, both in archaeological and geological contexts, the application of IcPD geochronology to this biomineral opens up the possibility to obtain reliable age information from a range of sites in different areas of the world.

A response to Richards and Schulting

We welcome the comments of Mike Richards and Rick Schulting; however, rather than attempting to close the debate on the isotope evidence and the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition, as suggested in their introduction, we agree that the issues raised should be widely discussed and subject to critical and well informed scrutiny. We certainly did not attempt a ‘simple outright denial of the validity of one of the methods of analysis’ (i.e. stable isotopes); rather we wished to make the point that interpretations have to take into account uncertainties associated with the measurements. We have been pleased by the discussion that our article has invoked: two published responses (Barbarena & Borrero 2005; Hedges 2004) and numerous personal communications which have been supportive and critical in

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope values in freshwater, brackish and marine fish bone collagen from Mesolithic and Neolithic sites in central and northern Europe

The aim of this research is to examine the isotopic characterisation of archaeological fish species as it relates to freshwater, brackish and marine environments, trophic level and migration patterns, and to determine intraspecies variation within and between fish populations in different locations within central and northern Europe. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis was undertaken on collagen extracted from 72 fish bone samples from eight Mesolithic and Neolithic archaeological sites in this region. Thirty-six (50%) of the specimens analysed produced results with acceptable carbon to nitrogen atomic ratios (2·9–3·6). The fish remains encompassed a wide spectrum of freshwater, brackish and marine taxa (n = 12), which were reflected in the δ13C values (−24·5 to −7·8‰). The freshwater/brackish fish (pike, Esox lucius; perch, Perca fluviatilis; zander, Sander lucioperca) had δ13C values that ranged from −24·2 to −19·3‰, whereas the brackish/marine fish (spurdog, Squalus acanthias; flatfish, Pleuronectidae; codfish, Gadidae; garfish, Belone belone; mackerel, Scomber scombrus) ranged from −14·9 to −9·4‰. Salmonidae, an anadromous taxon, and eel (Anguilla anguilla), a catadromous species, had carbon isotope values consistent with marine origin, and no evidence of freshwater residency (−12·7 to −11·7‰). The δ15N values had a range of 6·2‰ (6·5–12·7‰) indicating that these fish were on average feeding at 1·7 trophic levels higher than their producers in these diverse aquatic environments. These results serve as an important ecological baseline for the future isotopic reconstruction of the diet of human populations dating to the late Mesolithic and early Neolithic of the region.

Star Carr in a Postglacial Lakescape: 60 Years of Research

Abstract Star Carr has an international reputation in archaeology but it was just a small part of a former lakescape which has been systematically investigated at various periods over the last 60 years. The palaeo-lake and associated sites were first investigated by John W. Moore, a local amateur archaeologist and his findings led to the better known excavations of Grahame Clark. After a hiatus in research, survey and excavation resumed in the 1970s and has been ongoing ever since. The support over the last 25 years of the Vale of Pickering Research Trust has enabled the palaeo-Lake Flixton to be mapped prompting the discovery of new Early Mesolithic sites, resulting in an unparalleled understanding of an Early Mesolithic lakescape. In addition, Star Carr has been revisited at various times revealing new insights and further questions that remain to be answered. This paper presents a history of the investigations from the initial discoveries of Moore to the present day, and considers a range of issues including support, resourcing and the training of future generations of archaeologists.

Making a Point: a Critical Review of the Barbed Point Manufacturing Process Practised at Star Carr

Star Carr, North Yorkshire, has the largest deposition of Mesolithic antler barbed points in the country; in fact it accounts for roughly 97% of all Early Mesolithic barbed points known in Britain. There has been much debate about whether barbed point manufacture occurred at the site or elsewhere within the landscape but the process of manufacturing has never been examined in great detail. This paper presents a new evaluation based on analysis of museum collections, recent excavations and experimental work and concludes that there is evidence to suggest that the full manufacturing process took place at Star Carr.

Destructive events and the impact of climate change on Stone Age coastal archaeology in North West Europe: past, present and future

Archaeological investigations along the coastlines of Denmark and northern Germany have produced invaluable data concerning the Stone Age, and particularly our Mesolithic fishing, hunting and gathering ancestors. However, a number of different natural and human forces have partially or totally destroyed this important resource, particularly in other parts of North West Europe such as Britain and Ireland. What is more, further problems can be predicted as a consequence of climate change with possible rising sea levels and storm events. This paper considers the value of Mesolithic coastal archaeology, the threats posed to it, and the steps which are being taken to address these threats. The conclusion is that although research and policy is moving ahead, much more needs to be done in order to understand and preserve these sites before it is too late.

A bronze age cist cemetery at Howick, Northumberland

This paper reports the results of the excavation of an Early Bronze Age cist cemetery on the mid-Northumberland coast at Howick. The Bronze Age site was discovered during the investigation of a Mesolithic hut site, the latter having been published separately as a monograph. A total of five cists were found with only one being adult-sized, the rest presumably for infants. Due to the acidic conditions on the site, only a few fragments of a small skull were found in Cist 2. Other small finds included a small sherd of Food Vessel urn in an area of disturbance next to Cist 5, smoothed limestone cobbles and some nodules of yellow ochre. Flints were found in most of the feature fills, but these are considered to be residual as they are directly comparable to the narrow blade material found within the Mesolithic hut and its environs. The siting of Early Bronze Age cist burials in coastal locations is thought to reflect contemporary settlement on the coastal margin and its hinterland. With no Bronze Age dwelling sites known from this area, these cemeteries have an added significance as they provide indirect evidence for Bronze Age settlement on the North-East coastal plain.