Nicola Whitton

Game Engagement Theory and Adult Learning

One of the benefits of computer game–based learning is the ability of certain types of game to engage and motivate learners. However, theories of learning and engagement, particularly in the sphere of higher education, typically fail to consider gaming engagement theory. In this article, the author examines the principles of engagement from games designed for entertainment, applies these principles to the design of learning activities, and presents a model of learning engagement. The article examines literature on computer games and engagement, draws together the findings from a series of interviews, and applies these in an educational context. The author hypothesizes five factors that contribute to engagement with a learning activity and provides an example of the use of these factors in practice. The article concludes by considering further potential applications of the model.

Encouraging engagement in game-based learning

It is a common misconception that game-based learning is, by its very nature, engaging for the majority of learners. This is not necessarily the case, particularly for learners in Higher Education who may need to be persuaded of the value of learning games. For some learners, games may simply not be perceived as engaging–either in terms of an initial motivation to play or sustained participation. This paper describes the Alternate Reality Games for Orientation, Socialisation and Induction (ARGOSI) project, which experienced unexpectedly low motivation and participation. Despite extensive marketing, only a small fraction of potential students participated in the game and of those a far smaller number were highly engaged. Evidence from the project is presented and the reasons for the lack of engagement in the game created are considered. Finally the paper reflects on ways in which engagement with game-based learning might be encouraged.

On predicting learning styles in conversational intelligent tutoring systems using fuzzy decision trees

Abstract Intelligent Tutoring Systems personalise learning for students with different backgrounds, abilities, behaviours and knowledge. One way to personalise learning is through consideration of individual differences in preferred learning style. OSCAR is the name of a Conversational Intelligent Tutoring System that models a persons learning style using natural language dialogue during tutoring in order to dynamically predict, and personalise, their tutoring session. Prediction of learning style is undertaken by capturing independent behaviour variables during the tutoring conversation with the highest value variable determining the students learning style. A weakness of this approach is that it does not take into consideration the interactions between behaviour variables and, due to the uncertainty inherently present in modelling learning styles, small differences in behaviour can lead to incorrect predictions. Consequently, the learner is presented with tutoring material not suited to their learning style. This paper proposes a new method that uses fuzzy decision trees to build a series of fuzzy predictive models combining these variables for all dimensions of the Felder Silverman Learning Styles model. Results using live data show the fuzzy models have increased the predictive accuracy of OSCAR-CITS across four learning style dimensions and facilitated the discovery of some interesting relationships amongst behaviour variables.

Deconstructing Engagement: Rethinking Involvement in Learning

Background. The discourse of learner engagement has become prevalent in formal education research and practice in recent years. However, the term has multiple meanings and various constructions, particularly in the context of games and learning, where the coming together of two different disciplinary constructs creates ambiguity and tensions. Aim. The notions of engagement with education and engagement with games are not necessarily mutually compatible, and this article aims to explore this. Method. This article starts by exploring the use of the term by deconstructing the idea of engagement, and highlighting issues with the way in which people use it in different contexts. Next, it discusses practical and theoretical limitations of the concept, such as the assumed link between engagement and learning and measurement of engagement. Results. The core contribution of the article is a synthesis of the complex literature in this field presented as a model of engagement with learning based on six ways of constructing engagement: participation, attention, captivation, passion, affiliation, and incorporation. Conclusion. The article concludes by discussing the benefits and possible uses of this model, and highlighting necessary further research to forward the field of games and learning in this area.

Alternate reality games as learning environments for student induction

Alternate reality games (ARGs) are a relatively new form of collaborative game that make use of both the virtual and real worlds to engage players in a series of challenges within a compelling narrative. The Alternate Reality Games for Orientation, Socialisation and Induction (ARGOSI) project aimed to use this game format to provide an alternative way to support the student induction process at Manchester Metropolitan University. The ViolaQuest game provided a mechanism for new university students to meet with others, navigate a new city and undertake information literacy induction activities within a purposeful context. The project ran from April 2008 to March 2009, and while the game itself had limited success in terms of student participation and impact, there were many lessons learned in terms of appropriate design and implementation of alternative reality games to support learning. This article describes the evaluation, results, lessons learned and raises a number of questions as to the suitability of ARGs in higher education.

Cases on Digital Game-Based Learning: Methods, Models, and Strategies

In K-12 classrooms, as well as on the college and university level, the incorporation of digital games has played a vital role in the educational system. While introducing teachers to new fields, these digital games have been designed and implemented for the classroom and have shown positive results at a variety of educational levels.Cases on Digital Game-Based Learning: Methods, Models, and Strategies analyzes the implementation of digital game applications for learning as well as addressing the challenges and pitfalls experienced. Providing strategies, advice and examples on adopting games into teaching, this collection of case studies is essential for teachers and instructors at various school levels in addition to researchers in game-based learning and pedagogic innovation.

The impact of visual design quality on game-based learning

Computer games have the potential to provide an engaging and pedagogically-sound alternative to traditional teaching (e.g. Connolly et al, 2007; Ebner & Holzinger, 2007; Akkerman et al, 2009). They can support exploration, interaction and providean immersive experience in which learners can collaborate with others to solve problems and learn from their mistakes. However, a major limitation on their use is the ability for educators to obtain or create games that meet the desired learning outcomes for a particular context and are appropriate for their learners. Commercialoff-the-shelf (COTS) games have the advantage of being professionally produced but are designed primarily for entertainment – so even if an appropriate game can be found there are still the challenges of steep learning curves, time-consuming play, and expense to overcome before they could be deployed in an educational context. Designing games from scratch requires expertise in game design, graphics and programming and, while games produced in this way may meet their educational objectives, the limited time, know-how and budgets available mean that the look-andfeel of the game is less likely to be professionally executed than a commercial game.

Games for learning: creating a level playing field or stacking the deck?

Advocates of digital game-based learning make the case that games can support inclusivity and equality in education because they motivate nontraditional students, promote wider access, and engage learners who are disengaged from formal education. This article will argue that this is a limited analysis which – by the very nature of its inherent assumptions – propagates stereotypical notions of the role of games in learning and could actually reduce social equality. Assumptions about and demographics of computer-game players are discussed, as are issues of gaming literacy, differences between education and entertainment games, and the impact of these on learner motivation, gender issues of game choice, and accessibility considerations. The article also addresses the methodological challenge of giving a voice to those who are disengaged in research, a particular issue in the field of games and learning. Finally, four ways in which games have the potential to promote inclusion and equality are presented and discussed.

From the Games Industry: Ten Lessons for Game-Based Learning

This paper draws on lessons learned from the development process of the entertainment games industry and discusses how they can be applied to the field of game-based learning. This paper examines policy makers and those wishing to commission or develop games for learning and highlights potential opportunities as well as pitfalls. The paper focuses on ten key points in which the authors feel from experience in both commercial game development and education that parallels are drawn between the entertainment and educational games development processes.

Impact of educational interventions on adolescent attitudes and knowledge regarding vaccination: A pilot study

Background Current immunisation levels in England currently fall slightly below the threshold recommended by the World Health Organization, and the three-year trend for vaccination uptake is downwards. Attitudes towards vaccination can affect future decisions on whether or not to vaccinate, and this can have significant public health implications. Interventions can impact future vaccination decisions, and these interventions can take several forms. Relatively little work has been reported on the use of vaccination interventions in young people, who form the next generation of individuals likely to make vaccination decisions. Method We investigated the impact of two different types of educational intervention on attitudes towards vaccination in young people in England. A cohort of young people (n = 63) was recruited via a local school. This group was divided into three sub-groups; one (n = 21) received a presentation-based intervention, one (n = 26) received an interactive simulation-based intervention, and the third (n = 16) received no intervention. Participants supplied information on (1) their attitudes towards vaccination, and (2) their information needs and views on personal choice concerning vaccination, at three time points: immediately before and after the intervention, and after six months. Results Neither intervention had a significant effect on participants’ attitudes towards vaccination. However, the group receiving the presentation-based intervention saw a sustained uplift in confidence about information needs, which was not observed in the simulation-based intervention group. Discussion Our findings with young people are consistent with previous work on vaccination interventions aimed at adults, which have shown limited effectiveness, and which can actually reduce intention to vaccinate. Our findings on the most effective mode of delivery for the intervention should inform future discussion in the growing “games for health” domain, which proposes the use of interactive digital resources in healthcare education.