Nicolas Marmaras

Problem-Driven Approach to the Design of Information Technology Systems Supporting Complex Cognitive Tasks

Abstract: The present paper proposes a methodological framework for the design and evaluation of information technology systems supporting complex cognitive tasks. The aim of the methodological framework is to permit the design of systems which: (1) address the cognitive difficulties met by potential users in performing complex problem-solving tasks; (2) improve their potential users’ problem-solving performance; and (3) achieve compatibility with potential users’ competences and working environment. After a short review of the weaknesses of existing systems supposed to support complex cognitive tasks, the theoretical foundations of the proposed methodology are presented. These are the ergonomic work analysis of French ergonomists, cognitive engineering, cognitive anthropology–ethnomethodology and activity theory. The third section of the paper describes the generic ergonomic model, which constitutes a frame of reference useful for the analyst of the work situation to which the information technology system is addressed. In the fourth section, the proposed methodology is outlined, and in the fifth a case study demonstrating an application of the methodology is summarised. In the epilogue, the differences between the proposed methodological framework and other more conventional approaches are discussed. Finally, directions for future developments of the problem-driven approach are proposed.

Searching efficient plans for emergency rescue through simulation: the case of a metro fire

In this paper we present the way we modelled and simulated a metro system in the case of a tunnel fire, and discuss the ways this simulation may support the search for efficient rescue plans. The metro system was modelled as a complex adaptive system, comprising four interacting and co-evolving subsystems: (i) the fire and the released smoke, (ii) the group of passengers, (iii) the technological system, and (iv) the metro personnel. Based on this model, an agent-based simulation was developed. This simulation provides an appropriate dynamic representation of the designer’s problem space, enabling him (i) to apprehend the critical dependencies and invariants of the system under consideration, (ii) to identify the features that should characterise the designed emergency rescue plans, and (iii) to assess their efficiency. To demonstrate the usefulness of the adopted approach for the design of an efficient emergency rescue plan, the results of two experiments exploring alternative sequences of the metro personnel’s actions under different circumstances are presented.

Cognitive engineering practice: melting theory into reality

Given the growing scope of cognitive engineering, our intent in this paper is to help uncover some of the regularities of the discipline. Adopting a pragmatic view, we attempt to interpret what cognitive engineers really do in practice, and to partly systematize this reality. The paper stresses the need for: (i) an explicit consideration of the demand for intervention and the analysts preconceptions during the framing of the world-to-study, (ii) the adoption of multiple views for a sufficient understanding of the analysed world, (iii) a continuous reframing of the system under consideration (i.e., topological boundaries as well as timeframes) as the understanding of reality unfolds, (iv) acceptance and exploitation of the dialectic process between analysis/understanding and design/prediction.

Ergonomic design in ancient Greece.

Although the science of ergonomics did not actually emerge until the 20th century, there is evidence to suggest that ergonomic principles were in fact known and adhered to 25 centuries ago. The study reported here is a first attempt to research the ergonomics concerns of ancient Greeks, on both a conceptual and a practical level. On the former we present a collection of literature references to the concepts of usability and human-centred design. On the latter, examples of ergonomic design from a variety of fields are analysed. The fields explored here include the design of everyday utensils, the sculpture and manipulation of marble as a building material and the design of theatres. Though hardly exhaustive, these examples serve to demonstrate that the ergonomics principles, in content if not in name, actually emerged a lot earlier than is traditionally thought.

On the development of work practices: a constructivist model

The present paper aims to present a model for the development and evolution of work practices. Work practices are understood as the more or less stable, historically developed and partially unacknowledged arrays of activity, which are at the basis of successful action in a particular work setting. From a methodological perspective, work practices correspond to a level of analysis that is more macroscopic than the level of individual situated activity. The practice level of analysis considers explicitly both development in time plus the collective aspect. The proposed model is inspired by two distinct sources: applied research in cognitive engineering and anthropology; and theoretical work in the social sciences. It contends that practices can be seen as evolving entities that emerge through repetition, engaged situated distinction and subsequent descriptions. Descriptions are supposed to re-enter in the day-to-day conduct as formalisations institutionalising and/or rearranging practice on the way. It is argued that the model can be useful in order to gain insight and steer the process of cognition–organisation–technology co-adaptation (i.e. the development of practice) that follows technological or organisational changes.

A pragmatic mapping of factors behind deviating acts in aircraft maintenance

Abstract In this paper, we analyze twelve cases of deviations from prescribed procedures during scheduled/unscheduled maintenance checks, carried out by an aircraft maintenance organization in Greece. The detailed analysis of these cases let us identify specific factors that guided maintenance technicians towards alternative courses of action. Our focus is not on the material etiology of deviations but on the underlying factors that determined the actual decision action path by the air maintenance technicians. A generalization of factors is then being made, out of the specific factors identified for each case. The factors identified ranged from the most normative (e.g. manuals) to the most contextual ones (e.g. personal comfort, schedule pressures). We suggest that by making generalizations of specific factors identified from a pool of specific cases, we gain intimate knowledge on the cognitive and organizational basis of deviations. The intimate knowledge of the etiology of deviations may help us advance towards a resilient safety management in aircraft maintenance; one that goes beyond the striving for compliance, a safety management that (i) acknowledges people on the shop floor inevitably make choices and (ii) supports them in taking more “informed” and accountable decisions.

A question of our marketing or our preconceptions: Commentary on the paper ‘A strategy for human factors/ergonomics: developing the discipline and profession’

The present paper is a commentary on the recently published IEA strategy for human factors/ergonomics (Dul, J., et al. (2012), A strategy for human factors/ergonomics: developing the discipline and profession. Ergonomics, 55(4), 377–395). Two main issues that demand attention are: (i) the way others understand our profession and discipline, and (ii) the way we understand our profession and added value to industry. First, it is advocated that the discussion on the future of human factors/ergonomics (HFE) should be focused more on the quality of the delivered value of HFE and less on its visibility and marketing. Second, the three fundamental characteristics of HFE, as proposed in the report, are discussed and the consequences of this proposal are further developed. Arguments are put forward on the endemic epistemological vagueness within the discipline and on the optimistic definition of its aim. Finally, a proposal is made at the epistemological level, which challenges some established convictions of the discipline. It is advocated that such an epistemological evolution may be necessary if HFE is to make progress towards contributing to system performance. Practitioner Summary: The paper is a commentary on the IEA strategy for human factors/ergonomics. Issues discussed are, the way others understand our profession and the way we understand our profession and added value to industry. Some of the established convictions of the discipline are challenged and proposals are made to overcome these.

Workaround identification as an instrument for work analysis and design: a case study on ePrescription.

This paper investigates workarounds occurring while pharmacists use an electronic prescription (ePrescription) application. ePrescription enables physicians to send prescriptions electronically to pharmacies and was recently introduced in Greece as a solution for controlling the ever-increasing medication costs and improving patient safety. The research was carried out in two phases: (i) review of the relevant documentation, (ii) fieldwork (field observations and semi-structured interviews with the pharmacists) in three pharmacies. The workarounds identified fall into five categories and namely: (a) bypass of ePrescription application (i.e. ePrescription application is not used at all), (b) temporal nonconformity in the use of ePrescription application (i.e. usage of the application, but not at the formally specified time), (c) catachresis of ePrescription application (i.e. usage of the application, but not according to the intended way), (d) ePrescription application substitution by another electronic application, and (e) delegation of ePrescription application usage to non-authorized users. The outcome of the research can be used for the improvement of multiple work system elements such as the tools, the procedures, the organisational arrangements and the policies.

Please be Seated

This paper reports on a study investigating how office chairs are being used, whether they are being used properly, and what knowledge workers have of the potential benefits of correct use. Results indicate that workers received little by way of instruction and that many if not most of the features are under utilised.

The effects of changes in the traffic scene during overtaking

Overtaking maneuvers were studied in real traffic, by comparing cases where a change in the opposite traffic occurred during the overtaking maneuver i.e., appearance of an oncoming car, with cases where no change occurred during the maneuver i.e., either an already apparent oncoming car or no oncoming car. In total 45 naturally occurring cases of overtaking were analysed. By examining the time headways (TH) between the overtaking car and the other cars involved, at the end of the maneuver, a significant correlation was found between the TH to opposite traffic and the TH rear to the overtaken car. In cases where a change in the opposite traffic occurred and the proximity to opposite traffic was below a critical TH (<4s) the appearance of a new-oncoming car caused the overtakers to actively press, both longitudinally and laterally, close to the overtaken car. In cases of overtaking where no change in the opposite traffic occurred, the TH rear to the overtaking vehicle was unaffected by the TH to the opposite traffic. Interestingly, in comparing cases where an oncoming car appeared during overtaking with cases where an oncoming car was apparent from the start of the maneuver both the TH to the opposite traffic and the duration of the maneuver were not found to be significantly different. It is suggested that drivers were probably expecting to be confronted with an oncoming car during the overtaking. However, the decreased available time to disambiguate this situation leads the overtaking driver to limit the rear safety margin of the vehicle being overtaken. The appropriateness of this practice, in terms of safety, remains questionable.