Nicole D. Bolter

‘More Than a Game’: Impact of The First Tee Life Skills Programme on Positive Youth Development: Project Introduction and Year 1 Findings

This manuscript introduces our long-term project and provides Year 1 data on evaluating the effectiveness of The First Tee life skills programme in promoting positive youth development. To set up subsequent articles on this multi-phase project, we provide: (a) a review of the positive youth development theoretical framework and studies in the physical domain, (b) an in-depth description of The First Tee, a sport-based youth development programme, (c) overall project purposes and research design, (d) Year 1 samples, methodology, procedures and evaluation methods and (e) Year 1 findings for learning and transferring interpersonal and self-management skills that were taught in the programme. Findings provide initial data-based evidence that The First Tee is having a positive impact on promoting youth development in the golf context and in the transfer of life skills to other domains.

Assessing Impact of Physical Activity-Based Youth Development Programs: Validation of the Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS)

Purpose: A signature characteristic of positive youth development (PYD) programs is the opportunity to develop life skills, such as social, behavioral, and moral competencies, that can be generalized to domains beyond the immediate activity. Although context-specific instruments are available to assess developmental outcomes, a measure of life skills transfer would enable evaluation of PYD programs in successfully teaching skills that youth report using in other domains. The purpose of our studies was to develop and validate a measure of perceived life skills transfer, based on data collected with The First Tee, a physical activity-based PYD program. Method: In 3 studies, we conducted a series of steps to provide content and construct validity and internal consistency reliability for the Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS), a measure of perceived life skills transfer. Results: Study 1 provided content validity for the LSTS that included 8 life skills and 50 items. Study 2 revealed construct validity (structural validity) through a confirmatory factor analysis and convergent validity by correlating scores on the LSTS with scores on an assessment tool that measures a related construct. Study 3 offered additional construct validity by reassessing youth 1 year later and showing that scores during both time periods were invariant in factor pattern, loadings, and variances and covariances. Studies 2 and 3 demonstrated internal consistency reliability of the LSTS.Conclusion: Results from 3 studies provide evidence of content and construct validity and internal consistency reliability for the LSTS, which can be used in evaluation research with youth development programs.

Evaluation of The First Tee in Promoting Positive Youth Development: Group Comparisons and Longitudinal Trends.

Purpose: This manuscript represents the 3rd in a series of articles documenting our longitudinal evaluation of The First Tee, a physical activity-based youth development program that uses golf as a vehicle for teaching life skills and enhancing developmental outcomes. Previous phases of our project: (a) established initial data-based evidence of effectiveness through cross-sectional and qualitative methods (Weiss, Stuntz, Bhalla, Bolter, & Price, 2013), and (b) provided validity and reliability for a measure of life skills transfer in 3 studies using mixed methods (Weiss, Bolter, & Kipp, 2014). The purpose of the present phase was to: (a) compare youth in The First Tee to youth in other activities on life skills transfer and developmental outcomes, and (b) examine change and stability across 3 years in life skills transfer among youth in The First Tee. Method: In Study 1, youth participating in The First Tee (N = 405) and a comparison group (N = 159) completed measures of key constructs. In Study 2, a longitudinal sample of 192 youth participating in The First Tee completed the life skills transfer measure for 3 consecutive years. Results: Study 1 revealed that youth in The First Tee compared favorably to youth in other activities on 5 of 8 life skills and 6 of 8 developmental outcomes, and Study 2 showed that scores improved or remained stable for life skills transfer over time. Conclusion: Results from both studies show that The First Tee is effective in teaching for transfer of life skills and promoting developmental outcomes.

Sportspersonship coaching behaviours, relatedness need satisfaction, and early adolescent athletes’ prosocial and antisocial behaviour

Introduction: Previous research has found that high school athletes’ prosocial and antisocial behaviours were predicted by coaches’ behaviours focused on sportspersonship, as assessed by the Sportsmanship Coaching Behaviours Scale (SCBS). However, these relationships have not been assessed with early adolescents. In line with basic needs theory (BNT), sportspersonship coaching behaviours should be associated with athletes’ prosocial and antisocial behaviours through effects on their sense of relatedness. The two purposes of the present study were: (a) establish further validity and reliability for the SCBS and (b) determine whether relatedness mediates the relationship between coaching behaviours and athletes’ prosocial and antisocial behaviours. Design: Cross-sectional, correlational design. Method: Participants included 246 middle school-aged boys and girls (M age = 11.8, SD = 1.2) involved in a team sport who completed a survey to assess study variables. Results: Analyses showed a good fit to the data for a five-factor model, suggesting the SCBS is appropriate for early adolescents. In line with BNT, perceptions of coaching behaviours were associated with players’ relatedness and, in turn, their prosocial and antisocial sport behaviours. Specifically, modelling good sportsmanship was associated with greater prosocial and fewer antisocial behaviours through relatedness with coaches and teammates. Punishing poor sportsmanship was associated with fewer antisocial behaviours through relatedness with coaches. Conclusion: Collectively, findings support the validity of the SCBS for assessing coaching behaviours focused on sportspersonship and use of BNT for understanding athletes’ sportspersonship.

Coach, parent, and administrator perspectives on required coaching education in organized youth sport

Previous studies have primarily relied on coaches’ perspectives about whether and how to provide formal coaching education in youth sport. This study was designed to highlight multiple perspectives from key stakeholders (i.e., coaches, parents, and administrators) about the need for required formal coaching education programs in a youth sport community. We applied Bronfenbrenner’s process-person-context-time framework to understand views on required coaching education and children’s development through sport from an ecological vantage. The sample included 202 coaches, 309 parents, and 38 administrators who were involved in youth sport. In an online survey, participants were asked whether they agreed or disagreed that coaching education should be required, followed by an open-ended question asking them to elaborate on their answer. Quantitatively, the majority of participants agreed or strongly agreed that coaching education should be required. Inductive–deductive qualitative analyses resulted in 49 lower order themes representing 11 higher order themes that spanned the four categories of the process-person-context-time framework. Themes highlighted both convergence and divergence among the perspectives of coaches, parents, and administrators about why coaching education should or should not be required.

Female and male youth sport coaches’ perceptions of teaching sportspersonship to female and male athletes

According to the positive youth development framework, sportspersonship and character development is an expected outcome from participation in youth sport. Previous studies have shown mixed results in terms of how gender affects young athletes’ sportspersonship, suggesting it is important to explore how boys and girls are taught about sportspersonship by their coaches. In this study, we interviewed six female and six male youth sport coaches who had coached both girls’ and boys’ teams at recreational and competitive levels to examine coaches’ expectations regarding sportspersonship, with a specific focus on those beliefs associated with gender. Our analysis indicated that gender does matter, as represented in the two emergent higher-order themes—(a) Observations of Athletes’ Sportspersonship Behaviors and (b) Teaching Sportspersonship to Girls and Boys—representative of two and four lower-order themes, respectively. Results showed that gender mattered in terms of coaches’ reported strategies for teaching about sportspersonship, suggesting that youth sport participation builds gendered character.

Gut Microbiota Composition is Related to Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Healthy Young Adults

Bacteria residing in the human gastrointestinal tract has a symbiotic relationship with its host. Animal models have demonstrated a relationship between exercise and gut microbiota composition. This was the first study to explore the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness (maximal oxygen consumption, VO2max) and relative gut microbiota composition (Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio [F/B]) in healthy young adults in a free-living environment. Twenty males and 17 females (25.7 ± 2.2 years), who did not take antibiotics in the last 6 months, volunteered for this study. VO2max was measured using a symptom-limited graded treadmill test. Relative microbiota composition was determined by analyzing DNA extracted from stool samples using a quantitative polymerase chain reaction that specifically measured the quantity of a target gene (16S rRNA) found in Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Relationships between F/B and potentially related dietary, anthropometric, and fitness variables were assessed using correlation analyses with an appropriate Bonferroni adjustment (p < .004). The average F/B ratio in all participants was 0.94 ± 0.03. The F/B ratio was significantly correlated to VO2max (r = .48, p < .003), but no other fitness, nutritional intake, or anthropometric variables (p > .004). VO2max explained ∼22% of the variance of an individuals relative gut bacteria as determined by the F/B ratio. These data support animal findings, demonstrating a relationship between relative human gut microbiota composition and cardiorespiratory fitness in healthy young adults. Gastrointestinal bacteria is integral in regulating a myriad of physiological processes, and greater insight regarding ramifications of exercise and nutrition on gut microbial composition may help guide therapies to promote human health.

Metabolic Cost and Exercise Intensity During Active Virtual Reality Gaming

OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to investigate the exercise intensity of active virtual reality games (AVRGs) by oxygen consumption (VO2), heart rate (HR), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE). A second aim was to compare the AVRG intensities to current American College of Sports Medicine exercise guidelines using metabolic equivalents (METs) and %VO2 reserve (%VO2R). MATERIALS & METHODS HR, VO2, and RPE were collected on participants (N = 41; age: 25.2 ± 4.4 years) during 10-minutes of supine rest and while the participants played each of the following AVRGs for 10 minutes: Thrill of the Fight (TOF), Audioshield (AS), and Holopoint (HP). RESULTS Compared to resting values of HR (63 ± 10 bpm) and VO2 (4.9 ± 0.6 mL/[kg·min]), there were significant elevations in these variables during TOF (149 ± 16 bpm and 32.5 ± 7.1 mL/[kg·min]), AS (131 ± 24 bpm and 19.1 ± 5.9 mL/[kg·min]), and HP (135 ± 22 bpm and 24.8 ± 6.6 mL/[kg·min]). Based on 95% confidence intervals (CI) of %VO2R, TOF was classified vigorous (68.6% ± 2.8%), HP moderate (49.7% ± 2.7%), and AS light intensity (35.7% ± 2.4%). The 95% CI of METs indicated that TOF was classified vigorous (9.3 ± 0.3 METs), HP moderate to vigorous (7.1 ± 0.3 METs), and AS moderate intensity (5.5 ± 0.3 METs). Lastly, 95% CI of RPE led to TOF being classified as moderate (12.7 ± 0.4), whereas HP (10.5 ± 0.4) and AS (9.3 ± 0.3) were light intensity. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that these AVRGs can elicit significant increases in VO2 that are game-dependent, indicating increased energy expenditure. Furthermore, each game had a lower intensity categorization based on RPE compared to %VO2R or METs. These data provide information on the metabolic cost of movement-specific games and may aid consumers and fitness specialists in developing exercise programs with AVRGs.

Sibling Influence on Physical Activity and Sport Participation: Considerations for Coaches

Sibling relationships are some of the most influential throughout ones life. While family influences have often been examined in sports settings, less has been studied regarding the specific roles siblings may play. Research suggests that the way athletes view sport participation can be shaped by their experiences and relationships with siblings. Athletes may choose or avoid certain physical activities based on the interests of their siblings, and athletes may define their athletic abilities based on the abilities of their siblings. Moreover, natural rivalry exists between siblings and is especially present when siblings compete against one another in sport contexts. Coaches should be aware of the ways siblings influence one another and utilize strategies that encourage athletes to experience individual success. The purpose of this article is to increase awareness about sibling influences in sport settings and provide practical recommendations for coaches working with athletes who have siblings. The suggested tactics include avoiding direct comparisons, acknowledging biases, utilizing task sheets, and modifying activities to foster individual success. Coaches who encourage individual differences can maximize the positive experiences of siblings in sport and promote continued participation in physical activities.

Developing moral character through sport: Delivering on the promise

This is an Accepted Manuscript of a book chapter published by Routledge in Routledge International Handbook of Sport Psychology on 8 February 2016, available online: http://www.routledge.com/9781138022423.