Nigel Hardiman

Recreational impacts on the fauna of Australian coastal marine ecosystems

This paper reviews recent research into the ecological impacts of recreation and tourism on coastal marine fauna in Australia. Despite the high and growing importance of water-based recreation to the Australian economy, and the known fragility of many Australian ecosystems, there has been relatively limited research into the effects of marine tourism and recreation, infrastructure and activities, on aquatic resources. In this paper we have reviewed the ecological impacts on fauna that are caused by outdoor recreation (including tourism) in Australian coastal marine ecosystems. We predict that the single most potentially severe impact of recreation may be the introduction and/or dispersal of non-indigenous species of marine organisms by recreational vessels. Such introductions, together with other impacts due to human activities have the potential to increasingly degrade recreation destinations. In response, governments have introduced a wide range of legislative tools (e.g., impact assessment, protected area reservation) to manage the recreational industry. It would appear, however, that these instruments are not always appropriately applied.

Effects of non-consumptive wildlife-oriented tourism on marine species and prospects for their sustainable management

Marine non-consumptive wildlife-oriented tourism, whereby tourists observe and/or interact closely with animals, without purposely having a detrimental effect on them, has been growing globally in recent decades. Human-mediated feeding (provisioning) is widely used by tour operators to attract target species, facilitate viewing and interaction with tourists. Although potential effects of such provisioning on terrestrial fauna have been given moderate scientific research attention, equivalent research in the marine environment is limited. Effects of provisioning marine wildlife may include direct habituation, behavioural change, and/or dietary impacts among individuals and species. There may also be disruption to the species associated assemblage. It was found that the literature on the effects of non-consumptive wildlife tourism is fragmented and results from different areas and taxa are frequently contradictory. Most studies appeared to be of a few years duration, at most. This reflects the relative immaturity of the industry - many enterprises studied typically commenced within the 1990 s. Studies (other than fish) tended to focus on a focal species with few addressing the wider implications for the associated assemblage. Supplementary feeding may also have impacts on the health and wellbeing of provisioned animals. It is concluded that such nature tourism is often not benign - focal species and their assemblage are often disrupted. We conclude that funding to better understand the impacts and thus address them is imperative. To supplement funding for the research and monitoring required, an additional charge could incorporated into the fee charged to those engaging in marine wildlife tourism.

Extreme sports in natural areas: looming disaster or a catalyst for a paradigm shift in land use planning?

Historically, visitors’ motives for visiting protected areas included ‘rest, relaxation and reinvigoration’. Ecological impacts were typically low. Recent trends have increased use of protected areas for extreme sports, with greater numbers undertaking more active recreation, such as extreme sports. The effect of this trend is considered, together with potential management options. We propose that the development of appropriately targeted and delivered educational programmes could minimise environmental degradation. However, to maximise ecological conservation in protected lands we consider that a major paradigm shift is required. This will require a more strategic, holistic approach to planning and managing outdoor recreation/sport destinations incorporating collaboration across stakeholders. Based on past experience, to continue with the current model will ultimately accelerate biodiversity loss, degradation of protected areas, and loss of recreational amenity.

Mountain biking: Downhill for the environment or chance to up a gear?

The paper examines mountain biking as an increasingly popular adventure recreation activity. Some of its extreme derivatives have been incorporated into international events (e.g. Olympics). We review trends in mountain biking, consider the appropriateness of this activity in public natural areas with a conservation mandate (e.g. national parks, nature reserves) and consider alternative locations. We conclude that (1) mountain biking will continue to increase in popularity; and (2) venues developed in rural areas outside of national parks have provided economic benefits to local communities; but (3) the evidence of social conflict with other users and/or environmental impacts is not clear, mainly because of data limitations. Careful management of natural areas designated for recreation and conservation is required as a precautionary approach. Successful models operate outside of national parks that demonstrate a ‘win–win’ solution for stakeholders.

Visit impacts and canyon management in the Blue Mountains, Australia: Canyoners' perspectives and wilderness management

Recreation in natural areas has been promoted for numerous reasons (e.g., health, nature appreciation, education, financial gain) and leisure time spent in protected areas has increased substantially in popularity in recent decades. However, upkeep of such protected areas represents considerable financial outlay and to recoup these costs, tourism potentially provides a self-financing mechanism for ecological sustainability. In Australia, the adventure sport of canyoning has increased in popularity in the Blue Mountains National Park (Australia), part of a recently declared World Heritage Area, in parallel with an overall increase in wilderness recreation. This study sought canyoners’ perceptions of visit impacts, together with their attitudes to potential management of these unique areas. It also compares findings with American wilderness research outcomes. The results identify that the current level of traffic through the canyons was not considered to be detrimental to canyon visit enjoyment. While the findings were broadly similar, even at much lower visitation levels than American wilderness recreationists tolerate, Australian canyoners avoid heavily trafficked canyons. Although perceptions and attitudes differed with level of experience, overall, the conclusion is that the visitors encountered were tolerant of other canyoners and the discarded debris of past excursions. In this context, it is not surprising that most canyoners did not see an immediate need to implement further management restrictions.

Is the evolving sport of mountain biking compatible with fauna conservation in national parks

Historically, most people have tended to visit national parks for ‘rest, relaxation and reinvigoration’, typically resulting in moderate ecological impacts. However, increasingly, recreation in natural areas is including ‘adventure’ sports. One such recreation/sport that now incorporates a range of forms, including adventure derivatives, is mountain biking. In the more extreme forms, riders use extensive trials, often with steep segments and natural or human-made obstacles demonstrate technical skills (e.g., balance, calculated risk-taking, excitement, speed). Appreciation of the natural environment is seldom, if ever, a reason for participation. In this paper we consider the potential for impact on the fauna of national parks. While there is a dearth of information on the impact of mountain biking, we conclude that park management needs to be strategic in their consideration of the issues associated with mountain biking or the outcome will be further degradation of natural areas and, at the least, loss of many animals if not major threats to populations.

Comparison of stream macroinvertebrate assemblages in canyon ecosystems of the Blue Mountains (Australia) with and without recreational traffic : a pilot study in impossible terrain

In Australia, the adventure sport of canyoning occurs predominantly in the protected areas of the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, 50 km west of Sydney. It involves travelling through narrow, deep gorges using a combination of walking, abseiling, wading, rock scrambling and/ or swimming through the canyon streams. The sport’s popularity is reported to have increased substantially over time, causing concern for the sustainability of these fragile ecosystems. To investigate visitor impacts, benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages and water quality were compared among four canyons subject to high visitation (average 20 – 100 visits per week) with those in four unvisited/low visitation canyons (0 - 5 visits per week). Comparison was also made between impacted and nonimpacted areas within two of the high visitation canyons. Sampling was undertaken over two canyoning seasons (early spring to late autumn). No significant relationship between macroinvertebrate assemblage composition or water quality was observed due to visitation level within and among canyons, although there were inherent differences among canyons. Water quality was consistent with pristine conditions in all locations. Macroinvertebrate assemblages included a range of pollution sensitive taxa (e.g., Ephemeroptera represented by 42.3% of all animals). Although family richness was concentrated within a few orders (84.2% of families were represented by 50% of orders), most families were represented by 2 Recognisable Taxonomic Units, 47.4% of these were represented by a single taxon. We concluded that, at current visitation levels, there is no measurable impact on the predominant animal component of these ecosystems. This finding was contrary to the expectations of the land managers of this area.

Preliminary Assessment of Freshwater Crayfish as Environmental Indicators of Human Impacts in Canyons of the Blue Mountains, Australia

Abstract Canyoning has become a popular recreation activity in the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area (Australia), and park management consider that the activity is having an impact on the local fauna of the fragile canyon ecosystems. Although only limited data exist on the native freshwater crayfish populations that inhabit these canyons, it has been suggested that freshwater crayfish have the potential to act as a rapid bioindicator of human impacts. As a preliminary assessment, we sampled crayfish from two canyons that received high visitation and two with low visitation. We recorded only a single species, Euastacus spinifer and this was found to occur at higher altitudes than previously recorded. There was no significant difference in crayfish abundance or size between visitation levels. There were, however, differences in crayfish abundance between individual canyons. Animals within a canyon had the same colour morph which we deduced to be genetic under selection pressure. We conclude that with an appropriate baseline dataset, crayfish could potentially provide a rapid assessment method for use by canyoners and other non-specialists to underpin management decisions.

Crocodiles and grey nomads: a deadly combination?

Increasing numbers of retirees seek individual, extended, unstructured activities in remote, non-commercial locations. Travel is predominantly by self-drive 4WD vehicle towing a caravan/campervan. These ‘grey nomads’ often prefer remote bush camping sites/caravan parks to commercial resorts. The tropics – a popular destination – are inhabited by Australias only large semi-terrestrial carnivore, the estuarine crocodile Crocodylus porosus. Conservation programmes of recent decades have resulted in a substantial increase in numbers. With naive grey nomads increasingly encroaching on crocodile territory, attacks are expected to increase. Review of conservation programmes to incorporate awareness education targeting grey nomads is therefore required.

Nature tourism trends in Australia with reference to the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area

ABSTRACT Nature-based tourism has been viewed as a large and growing segment of the tourism market. Advocates of nature-based tourism argue its potential to generate income for biodiversity conservation and local economic benefit, while detractors fear a risk of “loving our parks to death”. Some recent studies have suggested that nature-based tourism may be declining on a per capita basis, especially in economically developed countries. Others have detected no such trend. Nature-based tourism is a key industry within Australia, based strongly on its unique scenery and biodiversity. We compared nature-based visitation and population growth during 1998–2012 for Australia overall and specifically for the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area which is adjacent to the countrys largest conurbation of Greater Sydney. We found substantial declines in domestic per capita visitation, both nationally and regionally. Because visitation provides the “political capital” for parks to survive, strategies to encourage visitation should be a target for land managers. Since children foster environmentally responsible behaviour in adults, they should be part of the focus for developing diverse experiences that encourage park visitation.