Nigel Long

Communication with police supervisors and peers as a buffer of work‐related traumatic stress

Traumatic events are a particular type of stressor that may affect police officers engaged in front line duties. In this study, specific types of social support predicted to buffer the psychological and physical health effects of trauma are drawn from theory and empirical evidence in the area of post-traumatic stress. Social support, measured as the content of communication, and the ease of talking about trauma was tested with 527 working police officers who responded to a questionnaire survey. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that the communication variables contributed to the variance in post-traumatic stress disorder and physical symptoms with differential effects for different aspects of communication. Analysis of the effects of traumatic stress on symptoms for sub-groups at different levels of communication showed that some types of communication, such as the ease of talking about trauma or positive communications about work, moderate the effects of stress for police officers, in that higher levels are associated with a weaker trauma–strain relationship. However, some types of communication buffered stress only at moderate levels and other types may not be protective. These results are discussed in terms of the types and sources of social support that are likely to buffer post-traumatic stress at work. Copyright

The impact of trauma and social support on Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A study of New Zealand police officers

Police work often involves traumatic situations and efforts toward the prevention of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) focus on posttrauma variables. Empirical evidence and theories of PTSD suggest the importance of social support as a moderator of the effects of trauma, in particular, emotional support and attitudes to expressing emotions. Five hundred twenty-seven officers of the New Zealand Police responded to a questionnaire to test the hypothesis that social support moderates the effect of traumatic experiences on PTSD symptoms. The prediction that lower social support would be related to higher PTSD scores was supported for social support from peers, supervisors, and outside work, but not for negatively expressed support. The prediction that these aspects of support would interact with traumatic experiences was supported for attitudes to expressing emotion at work. These findings suggest that there are important types of ongoing social support, from peers in particular, that can be fostered or provided for by organizations.

Race, Combat, and PTSD in a Community Sample of New Zealand Vietnam War Veterans

The association between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), combat exposure, and race was examined in a New Zealand community sample of 756 Vietnam War veterans. Maori veterans reported higher levels of PTSD than their non-Maori counterparts. However, the race effect was shown to be mediated by combat exposure level, rank, and combat role. These findings support differential experience explanations for the relationship between postwar adjustment and race, suggesting that higher levels of psychological symptoms reported by minority group veterans can be accounted for by their experience of higher levels of combat stressors.

Effect of the Gulf War on reactivation of adverse combat-related memories in Vietnam veterans.

Symptoms of combat related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have been reported extensively in Vietnam veterans. A few of these studies have reported situations in which PTSD has been reactivated in veterans with a history of PTSD. The present study reports the effects of media coverage of the Gulf War on a community sample of New Zealand Vietnam veterans. Levels of PTSD, distress, and well-being were assessed before and after the outbreak of hostilities. Most veterans closely followed the media presentation of the war and reported revived memories of Vietnam. Increased memories of Vietnam were associated with higher levels of PTSD and distress. It is suggested that veterans have heightened susceptibility to combat related stimuli because of their previous combat experience and that these stimuli can reactivate PTSD symptoms and distress. Implications of this finding for other groups in the community who harbour residual PTSD effects are discussed.

Traumatic events and physical health in a New Zealand community sample

Traumatic event exposure and physical health were examined in a community-residing sample of 1,500 New Zealand adults. Half (51%) reported past traumatic event exposure, 9% reported recent (past 12 months) trauma exposure, and 40% reported no exposure. After adjusting for gender, ethnic, and age differences, those experiencing crime and accident trauma exhibited significantly deteriorated physical health, as measured by current physical symptoms, chronic medical conditions, and chronic limitations in daily functioning. Further research is required to assess the influence of traumatic events on the physical health among adults from other countries, and to evaluate the factors that may mediate or moderate this relationship for different subgroups of the New Zealand population. Limitations of this study are outlined.

Prevalence of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Depression and Anxiety in a Community Sample of New Zealand Vietnam War Veterans

Objective: The aim of the paper is to investigate the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression and anxiety in a community sample of New Zealand Vietnam War veterans. Method: Data were collected as part of a national survey on the health and mental health of New Zealand Vietnam veterans. Five hundred and seventy-three randomly selected male Vietnam veterans participated in a postal survey. The questionnaire contained a number of demographic, biographical and psychological measures. Results: The results revealed that 10% of the veterans could be classified as PTSD cases and that these veterans exhibited high levels of depression and anxiety. In PTSD cases, 15% were also classified with anxiety, 6% with depression, and 73% were classified with both anxiety and depression. In PTSD cases 94% were classified with more than one additional disorder. In non-PTSD cases 27% were classified with anxiety, and 1% with depression, while 12% experienced both anxiety and depression. Conclusions: The consequences of comorbidity for research and treatment are discussed and it is suggested that health professionals should be attentive to military experience as a predictor of these disorders.

Peritraumatic distress: Its relationship to posttraumatic stress and complicated grief symptoms in sudden death survivors

Although sudden death has been linked to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), its role in complicated grief (CG) and sudden death survivors is unknown. This questionnaire study investigated the role of peritraumatic distress in PTSD and CG symptoms in adults (n = 125) an average of 28.37 months (SD = 3.12) after a loved ones sudden death. The Peritraumatic Distress Inventory, Impact of Event Scale-Revised, and Inventory of Complicated Grief were administered to assess symptoms of peritraumatic distress, PTSD, and CG, respectively. Peritraumatic distress was the strongest correlate of both PTSD (β = .42, p < .001) and CG (β = .39, p < .001) symptoms, in a model containing current distress (Hopkins Symptom Checklist-21). Peritraumatic distress may be a key mechanism in the development of both PTSD and CG, therefore suddenly bereaved individuals reporting higher peritraumatic distress may be at risk of both adverse trauma and grief reactions.

An investigation of the gate control theory of pain using the experimental pain stimulus of potassium iontophoresis

This study investigated a prediction derived from gate control theory—that there would be a pulse of pain as a pain stimulus was being ramped off due to the rapidly transmitting, inhibitory large fiber activity falling away sooner at the spinal level than the excitatory activity of the slow-transmitting, small nociceptive afferents. A further prediction was that the more distant the peripheral stimulus was from the spine, the greater the pain pulse would be. Fourteen subjects had the pain stimulus of iontophoretically applied potassium ions (K+) applied to an upper and a lower site on the dominant arm. In a threshold detection task using the double random staircase method, subjects were asked to indicate whether they could detect a pulse of additional pain during this ramp-off phase. The average rate of stimulus ramp-off in order to detect a pain pulse was statistically greater for the upper-arm site (14.3 μg K+/sec) than for the lower-arm site (9.4 μg K+/sec). These results were consistent with gate control theory. Alternative explanations, including intrinsic differences in nociceptive responding for different dermatomes and anode break, were considered. It was concluded that the detection of a pain pulse during the ramping off of a peripheral pain stimulus potentially provides a quantitative measure of the spinal modulation of pain.

Cyclone bola: A study of the psychological after-effects

Abstract The present study investigated long-term psychological effects of Cyclone Bola, which struck the East Coast of New Zealands North Island in March, 1988. Using mailed self-report questionnaires, data was collected from 118 individuals who had been evacuated from their homes during Cyclone Bola, and/or who applied for financial aid following the disaster. The study found that, five years after the cyclone, 12% of respondents could be classified as post-traumatic stress disorder cases and 17% were classified with high psychological distress scores. The relationship between these psychological outcomes and various risk factors was examined. High post-traumatic stress disorder and psychological distress scores were significantly related to higher mean levels of emotional distress at the time of the disaster, and to greater dissatisfaction with both post-disaster assistance and social support.

Stress and mental health status associated with peacekeeping duty for New Zealand defence force personnel

This article presents findings from a longitudinal study investigating the psychological impact of peacekeeping duties on 277 New Zealand Defence Force personnel. Mental health and stressor experience data are presented for four stages of deployment from prior to the deployment to approximately 6 months after service personnel returned to New Zealand. The findings of this study support previous research which shows that while the incidence of reported psychiatric disorders is very low among peacekeeping personnel, peacekeeping duty does impact upon the mental health status of the personnel involved. For the peacekeepers in this study the most stressful periods appeared to be the preparation and follow-up stages of the deployment. The personnel reported higher anxiety, psychological distress and deployment-related hassles prior to departure, and higher anxiety, psychological distress and lower positive psychological well-being several months after their return to New Zealand. The results also showed that the most important predictor of the overall mental health status of these personnel, across all four stages, was level of current stress.