Niilo Konttinen

Postural stability and skilled performance—A study on top-level and naive rifle shooters

Posture control during aiming over a period of 7.5 s preceding the shot was studied among national top-level rifle shooters as well as among national level shooters and amateurs familiar with rifle shooting. Movement of the center of forces (COF) was analyzed in terms of the speed and amplitude of the movement. These calculations were carried out in 1.5 s windows, the first window beginning 7.5 s and ending at 6.0 s prior the shot. The last window ended at the trigger pull. Posture control data differentiated the studied groups according to their level in competitive shooting. The male top-level shooters could stabilize their posture significantly better than female top-level or male national level shooters, who were, in turn, much more stable than naive shooters. The experienced shooters were able to stabilize their posture even better during the last seconds preceding the shot, whereas in naive shooters there were no significant differences when the successive windows were compared with each other. When a comparison was made between the best and worst 20 shots of each subject, a significant difference in balance parameters was only observed among the naive shooters, who showed more pronounced movement of the COF in the less successful trials. Among the highly trained top-level shooters a miss in whole-body posture stabilization apparently seldom is a reason for a poor result.

Brain Slow Potentials and Postural Sway Behavior During Sharpshooting Performance

In the present study, the relation of preparatory brain slow potentials (SPs) to postural body sway during sharpshooting performance was examined. SPs from frontal, left-central, and right-central areas were recorded from 6 elite and 6 non-elite sharpshooters during a realistic simulated shooting task. A force platform technique was used in the recording of postural sway. The results showed that body sway, as indexed by sway amplitude and mean velocity, was associated with the concomitant SP changes. That relationship was dependent on the shooters expertise level, however. The main finding among the elite shooters was that the reduced amplitude of body sway coincided with reduced frontal positivity, whereas in the non-elite shooters, the amplitude of sway and the mean sway velocity in the anteroposterior direction were typically accompanied by the lateralization of central negativity. Those findings offer some new insights for evaluating the functional significance of preparatory brain SPs associated with psychomotor processing in sharpshooting. The results from the present study also have implications for the understanding of the postural strategies employed by shooters of different expertise levels.

Preparatory heart rate patterns in competitive rifle shooting

In this study, we examined the relationship between preparatory heart rate patterns and competitive shooting performance. Cardiac activity was recorded from six elite and six non-elite male rifle shooters during the 6 s before the trigger pull. The assessment of shooting performance was based on three variables: shooting score, rifle stability and electromyographic (EMG) activity in the upper body. Each shooter showed a decrease in the pre-trigger heart rate that did not covary with the shooting scores. The magnitude of this change was greater for the non-elite shooters compared to the elite shooters, suggesting that the heart rate patterns reflected skill-related aspects of preparatory performance. The analyses of rifle-hold performance (rifle stability and EMG) suggested that the observed heart rate changes were associated with a shooters attempts to achieve a rigid rifle position, but depend on his skill level. Interpretation of preparatory heart rate patterns in competitive rifle shooting should not be based solely on the attentional focusing aspect, but should also take into account the effects of a shooters psychomotor regulation.

Brain Slow Potentials Reflecting Successful Shooting Performance

Preparatory brain activity from frontal, centro-lateral, and occipital areas were recorded from top-level rifle shooters during shooting performance. The aim of the study was to examine the relation of brain slow potentials to qualitative (rifle holding) and quantitative (hit) aspects of superior shooting performance. For this purpose, a typology of slow potentials (SPs) was developed. The resulting SP types were used for unraveling the associations between the electrocortical activity and behavioral output. The main finding was that frontal positivity was associated with successful performance, but only if the central-right SP was more negative than the central-left one. This finding was explained as showing that, in the case of superior performance, a shooter is able to refrain from irrelevant motor activity (frontal positivity) and concomitantly concentrate on the visual-spatial processing (right-sided negativity). In all, the present experiment suggests that the SPs are consistently related to the covert aspects of shooting performance, which lack an overt manifestation. At the practical level, this means that the SPs provide a tool for accessing information concerning the optimal balance between visual-spatial targeting and motor activity which can make a valuable contribution to the understanding of superior shooting performance.

The effects of augmented kinematic feedback on motor skill learning in rifle shooting.

Abstract In this study, we examined the effects of augmented kinematic knowledge of performance (KP) on shooting performance and learning. Knowledge of performance described the aiming trajectory of the rifle barrel. The effects of knowledge of performance were evaluated in terms of shooting accuracy (shooting score), variability of the shooting score (root mean square error) and rifle stability (x- and y-deviation of rifle movement). The participants (n = 40) were randomly assigned to one of four groups: no-KP, 50% KP, 100% KP and a control group. The three experimental groups performed 480 shots during a 4 week acquisition phase in which feedback was provided. No-feedback retention tests were administered at 2 and 10 days after acquisition. There were no differences between groups during acquisition. In the 2 day retention test, the mean shooting score of the group receiving 100% knowledge of performance was significantly higher than that of the other groups. Furthermore, variability in shooting score for the 100% KP group was lower than that for the 50% KP and control groups. No significant differences were found in rifle stability between the experimental groups. In summary, a high frequency of kinematic knowledge of performance improved shooting accuracy, but the effect appeared to be temporal, disappearing in the 10 day retention test. Given that a parallel effect was not found in rifle stability, future research should focus on examining the reasons for this improvement in shooting score.

Optoelectronic measures in the analysis of running target shooting

In this study, we examined the construct validity and practical significance of an optoelectronic shooting training system (Noptel ST 2000 Sport) for the technical analysis of running target shooting. A total of 37 male shooters of three different skill levels participated in the study. Principal component analysis revealed four common factors of 16 variables describing the aiming trajectory of the rifle barrel: (i) Holding area, (ii) Accuracy of aiming, (iii) Cleanness of triggering and (iv) Time on target. These factors were suggested to describe the essential components of running target shooting. According to the discriminant analysis, the shooters of various skill levels seemed to discriminate successfully into three groups when the aiming trajectory data were analysed. Finally, the aiming trajectory variables represented a 43% of the total variance in the shooting score. In summary, the present data indicated that the optoelectronic shooting training system had practical significance and supported the technical analysis of rifle barrel movement in running target shooting. A sub‐set of variables, which reflect the essential information of running target shooting performance, were outlined for training and coaching purposes.

Personal Reasons for Withdrawal from Team Sports and the Influence of Significant Others among Youth Athletes

The aim of this study was to identify the main reasons for withdrawal from team sports and to examine the influence of significant others (i.e., coaches, parents, peers, and siblings) in the decision making concerning withdrawal from youth sports. An attempt was also made to compare withdrawal components and the influence of significant others in terms of gender, level of competition and years of involvement in youth sports. The participants in this study were young football (American soccer) (n=397), ice hockey (n=88) and basketball (n=50) players who had terminated their participation in their sports. Principal component analysis was used to reduce the number of withdrawal items and identify principal withdrawal components. The results indicated that having other things to do and a decline in excitement were the most important reasons for withdrawal. Coaches and teammates appeared to be the two main groups of significant others who influenced young players decision making related to their withdrawal. Statistically significant differences in withdrawal components related to ability and social issues were found between gender and years of involvement. The present findings highlight the factors that are related to the incidence of withdrawal, and at the same time, underline the role of significant others within the contexts of sport participation. Recommendations and practical implications for coaches and policy makers to reduce the withdrawal rate among young athletes are provided.

Effects of 12‐week shooting training and mode of feedback on shooting scores among novice shooters

The mode of feedback has been shown to have an effect on motor skill learning. This study investigated effects of an intensive 12‐week shooting training period, and of the mode of feedback on scores in standing and running target shooting among 30 novices with limited shooting experience. They were divided into one control (no training) and three training groups. One out of the three training groups received only KR (knowledge of results) while the two other groups received KR+KP (knowledge of performance). One of the KR+KP groups received additional visual feedback (FB‐II group), which included videos, graphic and written materials about kinematic and kinetic characteristics of their respective shooting techniques compared to performance of international level shooters. Each training group improved their scores in the running target shooting. There were no significant differences between the three training groups in improvements of sum scores (performance outcome). The current study showed that among novice shooters both KR alone and KR+KP improved running target shooting outcome, and that KR and KP together did not lead to a significantly better shooting performance than KR alone.

Brain slow waves preceding time‐locked visuo‐motor performance

According to previous findings (Konttinen and Lyytinen, 1992), the slow brain negativity preceding the trigger pull in rifle-shooting tends to be decreased in successful shots among experienced marksmen, whereas no such pattern is found among inexperienced subjects. This effect was interpreted as resulting mainly from optimal arousal. However, another explanation is examined here. The aim of the experiment was to investigate slow electrocortical changes associated with motor regulation and visual aiming related to shooting performance. Four variations on a shooting task were used, in which the visual and motor components were contrasted. Motor activity related to gun stabilization was found to be associated with slow-wave positivity, whereas visual aiming was manifested as slow negativity. The results offer some basis for interpreting the individual slow brain wave patterns that predict shooting performance.

The role of sport-specific play and practice during childhood in the development of adolescent Finnish team sport athletes

This study sought to understand the role of sport-specific play and practice in the development of adolescent team sport athletes in the Finnish sports development system. Participants were male, 15-year-old soccer (n = 141), ice hockey (n = 204), and basketball (n = 96) players, divided into three groups based on the amount of sport-specific play and practice experienced during childhood. Data were collected with sport-specific inventories of practice history, tactical skills, psychological skills, and sport-specific skill test. Results showed that athletes with more sport-specific play and practice during childhood had more sport-specific play and practice during adolescence, better technical, tactical, and psychological skills, and were more likely to be selected for national youth teams at the age of 15. Data highlighted the importance of sport-specific play and practice during childhood in the development of team sport performers in the Finnish athlete development system.