Nili Liphschitz

The beginning of olive (olea europaea) cultivation in the old world: A reassessment

Abstract The olive was one of the first fruit trees cultivated by man. It has been claimed that cultivation of the olive began in Israel during the Chalcolithic Period. Careful botanical examination of pollen grains, stones and wood remains gathered from living trees and from archaeological contexts show that it is impossible to distinguish between wild and cultivated olives. The ample remnants of olive found in archaeological contexts, together with other finds, such as pottery vessels, oil lamps, and olive oil installations, indicate that the earliest widespread use of olives in Israel was in the Early Bronze Age.

Cambial Activity of Evergreen and Seasonal Dimorphics Around the Mediterranean

The annual rhythm of cambial activity in various Mediterranean evergreens and seasonal dimorphics is compared on the basis of a literature survey. Two main rhythms of activity can be distinguished:

Adaptation of plants to saline environments: salt excretion and glandular structure

Excretion of ions by special salt glands is a well known mechanism for regulating the mineral content of many halophytic plants.

The Annual Rhythm of Activity of the Lateral Meristems (Cambium and Phellogen) in Pinus Halepensis Mill. and Pinus Pinea L.

The annual rhythms of cambial and phellogen activity in Pinus halepensis and P pinea were investigated. Under natural conditions the cambium of P halepensis begins its activity in autumn, enters a quiescent period during midwinter, resurnes activity towards spring and enters a second rest period in summer. The ring border is formed during summer. Irrigated plants growing outdoors were active almost all the year round.The cambium of P pinea is active between April and November and enters a true winter dormancy.The duration of xylem production exceeded that of the phloem. More xylem than phloem cells were formed. The phellogen was active during a short period only.Pinus halepensis seems to follow the Mediterranean climate patterns whereas P pinea follows the pattern of a colder climate.

Past distribution of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) in the mountains of Israel (Palestine)

It was widely accepted that, in the past, forests of Aleppo pine, Pinus halepensis (‘Jerusalem pine’ in Hebrew), were common in Israel-Palestine and covered vast areas of its mountains. However, an interdisci plinary research project, using botanical, historical and geographical evidence, shows a different picture. The pine is mentioned only once in the Bible, and rarely in other religious sources. Descriptions of pine forests, or even isolated stands, by pilgrims and travellers who visited the Holy Land up to and during the nineteenth century, are rare. Palynological investigations in the area do not reveal any significant amounts of pine pollen except for the twentieth century. Investigations of wood remains from archaeological excavations show that Aleppo pine was rather rare, and constituted only a minute percentage of the wood assemblage. It can therefore be assumed quite safely that the Aleppo pine, which covered in the 1980s about 50% of the planted forests of Israel, was rare in the native arboreal vegetation of Israel in the past.

Ancient dominance of the Quercus calliprinos-Pistacia palaestina association in mediterranean Israel.

. The natural Mediterranean maquis and forest vegetation of Israel is commonly considered to be composed mainly of four, roughly equal components: Pinus halepensis, deciduous oak, evergreen oak, and Ceratonia - Pistacia communities. They represent the past climax and subclimax of this region. Evidence accumulated from pollen analysis and wood remnant research in geological and archaeological excavations, as well as from written historical sources, shows that this view is wrong: the ancient vegetation in this area was dominated by Quercus calliprinos.

The Annual Rhythm of Activity of the Lateral Meristems (Cambium and Phellogen) in Pistacia Lentiscus L.

Cambial and phellogen activities in Pistacia lentiscus were followed by the radiological method. Under natural conditions xylem was produced in most cases during two separate seasons of the year, i.e. spring and autumn. The phloem was produced during two different periods that were shorter than those of the xylem production. The phellogen was active once a year in some branches, during the end of April and May. The cambium of irrigated plants was continuously active throughout the spring, summer and autumn. The cessation of activity of the lateral meristems during the winter and summer seems to represent rest periods. The pattern of activity of the lateral meristems in Pistacia lentiscus suggests that this species is weil adapted to the Mediterranean climatic rhythm.

The Botanical Remains from Masada: Identification of the Plant Species and the Possible Origin of the Remnants

A total of 1,233 wood samples from Masada were analyzed. The samples included 25 plant species, many of which are the same as those growing today in the desert or in the more humid parts of Israel. Samples of other species were imported from other countries. The frequency with which specific objects were made from certain of the species seems to reflect a custom or tradition of long standing. The rich collection of species found on Masada was distinctly different from the botanical remains of the Roman siege rampart, attesting to the residential nature of Masada. The most common plant species in the botanical remnants were Juniperus phoenica (556 samples), Ficus sycomorous (118 samples), Cedrus libani (99 samples), reed (73 samples), Phoenix dactylifera (43 samples), Cupressus sempervirens (42 samples), Tamarix species (65 samples), Pistacia palaestina (41 samples) and Populus euphratica (40 samples).

CERATONIA SILIQUA IN ISRAEL: AN ANCIENT ELEMENT OR A NEWCOMER?

ABSTRACT The carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua) is a common and important element of the present Israeli vegetation. The name of the carob was first mentioned in the Mishna and the Talmud. Archaeo- botanical analyses in Israel have shown that only a very small number of pieces of charred wood and seeds of Ceratonia siliqua were found out of several thousands of samples identified all over the country throughout the archaeological profile, although they are very well preserved even when charred. These findings suggest that Ceratonia siliqua was present in Israel in ancient times, but it was very rare. Its present spreading probably dates from the last few centuries, when this species invaded the denuded areas where natural vegetation had been destroyed by man.

The recent distribution of Pinus brutia: a reassessment based on dendroarchaeological and dendrohistorical evidence from Israel:

The distribution area of Pinus brutia today covers mainly the eastern region of the Mediterranean. Dendrohistorical research, based on the analysis of wood remains from archaeological sites and historical buildings in Israel, indicates that during ancient times P. brutia was absent from the natural vegetation landscape of Israel and may have been much less important in the eastern Mediterranean region as a whole. However, it was very common in the vegetational landscape of the Eastern Mediterranean from the nineteenth century onwards. This points to changes which have taken place only during the last few hundred years, influenced mainly by human activities rather than by changes in climatic conditions.