Noah L. Schroeder

How Effective Are Pedagogical Agents for Learning? A Meta-Analytic Review.

Research on the use of software programs and tools such as pedagogical agents has peaked over the last decade. Pedagogical agents are on-screen characters that facilitate instruction. This meta-analysis examined the effect of using pedagogical agents on learning by reviewing 43 studies involving 3,088 participants. Analysis of the results indicated that pedagogical agents produced a small but significant effect on learning. The overall mean effect size was moderated by the contextual and methodological features of the studies. The findings revealed that the use of pedagogical agents were more beneficial for K-12 students than post-secondary students. Pedagogical agents that communicated with students using on-screen text facilitated learning more effectively than agents that communicated using narration. The findings of this study have implications for advancing theory and practice, as well as highlighting productive future directions for research.

A Systematic Review of Pedagogical Agents’ Persona, Motivation, and Cognitive Load Implications for Learners

Abstract After more than a decade of pedagogical agent research, this review synthesizes the affective implications of learning with pedagogical agents. The review investigates different affective measures within 99 pedagogical agent outcome measures. The results suggest that learners may prefer pedagogical agents compared to non-agent control conditions, and pedagogical agents may provide motivational benefits for some populations under certain conditions. However, it is unclear whether pedagogical agents impose extraneous cognitive load. Overall, consistent with research around learning outcomes (Mayer, Dow, & Mayer, 2003), the results suggest that the image of the agent may not be necessary for the learner to receive the affective benefits of the interaction. We delineate limitations of the current study and future research directions.

Efficacy beliefs, job satisfaction, stress and their influence on the occupational commitment of English-medium content teachers in the Dominican Republic

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of efficacy, job satisfaction, job stress and their influence on the occupational commitment of English-medium content teachers. A total of 109 practicing English-medium and Spanish-medium content teachers from the Dominican Republic volunteered to participate in the study. Findings suggest both teacher self-efficacy and collective efficacy measures were inversely but significantly correlated with occupational commitment and positively correlated with job satisfaction. The results also showed significant differences between English-medium and Spanish-medium content teachers’ self-efficacy, job satisfaction, job stress and occupational commitment. These findings have significant implications for advancing theory and practice. Recommendations for further research are discussed.

Persisting Issues in Pedagogical Agent Research

Virtual characters have become ubiquitous in multimedia applications, appearing in numerous contexts such as characters in video games, avatars in immersive worlds, or tutors in multimedia learning environments. One type of virtual character is known as a pedagogical agent. Pedagogical agents are lifelike characters present in multimedia learning environments in order to facilitate learning. Pedagogical agents have been researched for nearly two decades, yet the effectiveness of including an agent in a learning environment remains debatable. The purpose of this study was to critically examine persisting issues in pedagogical agent research that examines the use of an agent to a nonagent condition. Our analysis of the literature highlights three persisting issues and provides promising future research directions.

Measuring pedagogical agent persona and the influence of agent persona on learning

Pedagogical agents are virtual characters embedded within a learning environment to enhance student learning. Researchers are beginning to understand the conditions in which pedagogical agents can enhance learning, but many questions still remain. Namely, the field has few options in terms of measurement instruments, and limited research has investigated the influence of pedagogical agent persona, or the way the agent is perceived by students, on learning outcomes. In this study, we re-examine the Agent Persona Instrument (API) using confirmatory factor analysis and Rasch methods. We then examine the influence of agent persona on learning outcomes using path analysis. The results confirmed the four factor structure of the instrument, and the fit of items with the Rasch model demonstrates construct validity in our context. However, the analyses indicated that revisions to the instrument are warranted. The path analysis revealed that affective interaction significantly influenced information usefulness variables, however perceptions measured by the API had no significant impact on learning outcomes. Suggestions for revising the API are provided. The four factor structure of the Agent Persona Instrument is re-examined.Rasch methods were used to examine the construct validity of the instrument.Results indicate the instrument is a useful tool, but would benefit from revisions.Path analysis revealed perceptions did not significantly influence learning.

Efficacy of a Meiosis Learning Module Developed for the Virtual Cell Animation Collection

This study tests the efficacy of an animation-based learning module for conveying basic conceptual understanding of meiosis in introductory biology. Student achievement on a meiosis assessment was significantly higher for students who viewed the learning module than for students who received instruction in a traditional lecture setting alone.

Learning about Chemiosmosis and ATP Synthesis with Animations Outside of the Classroom

Many undergraduate biology courses have begun to implement instructional strategies aimed at increasing student interaction with course material outside of the classroom. Two examples of such practices are introducing students to concepts as preparation prior to instruction, and as conceptual reinforcement after the instructional period. Using a three-group design, we investigate the impact of an animation developed as part of the Virtual Cell Animation Collection on the topic of concentration gradients and their role in the actions of ATP synthase as a means of pre-class preparation or post-class reinforcement compared with a no-intervention control group. Results from seven sections of introductory biology (n = 732) randomized to treatments over two semesters show that students who viewed animation as preparation (d = 0.44, p < 0.001) or as reinforcement (d = 0.53, p < 0.001) both outperformed students in the control group on a follow-up assessment. Direct comparison of the preparation and reinforcement treatments shows no significant difference in student outcomes between the two treatment groups (p = 0.87). Results suggest that while student interaction with animations on the topic of concentration gradients outside of the classroom may lead to greater learning outcomes than the control group, in the traditional lecture-based course the timing of such interactions may not be as important.

Reconsidering the voice effect when learning from a virtual human

Abstract The current paper investigates an essential design component of virtual humans, the voice they communicate with, by examining the impact of varied voice types. A standard voice effect has held that human voices should be paired with virtual humans. The current study revisits this effect. In a randomized trial, virtual humans used one of three voice types (classic and modern text-to-speech engines, as well as human voice) to present information to a sample of participants from an online population. The impact of each voice type on learning, cognitive load, and perceptions of the virtual human were examined. The study found that the modern voice engine produced significantly more learning on transfer outcomes, had greater training efficiency, and was rated at the same level as an agent with a human voice for facilitating learning and credibility while outperforming the older speech engine. These results call into question previous results using older voice engines and the claims of the voice effect.

A Preliminary Investigation of the Influences of Refutation Text and Instructional Design

Teachers are often tasked with changing their students’ conceptions about scientific topics. One strategy that has been found effective for conceptual change is the use of refutation text. However, reviewing the literature revealed that many practical questions around the use refutation text have not been adequately addressed. A secondary issue is that teachers often create instructional videos for their students to view outside of class, but little guidance exists on how to design these videos. This study begins to examine the intersection of refutation text, conceptual change, and instructional video design by testing (a) the effects of traditional refutation text and soft refutation text on conceptual change when presented as narration in an instructional video, (b) the effects of traditional refutation text compared to soft refutation text when presented as narration on conceptual change in an instructional video, and (c) the influence of the presence of a human hand in the instructional video on cognitive, affective, and conceptual change scores. The results indicated that traditional refutation text and soft refutation text retain their effectiveness when presented as narration in an instructional video; soft refutation text and traditional refutation text produced nearly identical conceptual change when presented as narration in an instructional video; and the inclusion of a human hand in the instructional video did not influence conceptual change, learning, or the learners’ perceptions of the instructor. The preliminary implications for theory and practice are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided.

Investigation of a Stand-Alone Online Learning Module for Cellular Respiration Instruction †

With the recent rise of alternative instructional methodologies such as flipped classrooms and active learning, many core concepts are being introduced outside of the classroom prior to scheduled class meeting times. One popular means for external concept introduction in many undergraduate biology courses is the use of stand-alone online learning modules. Using a group of four large introductory biology course sections, we investigate the use of a stand-alone online learning module developed using animations from Virtual Cell Animation Collection as a resource for the introduction of cellular respiration concepts outside of the classroom. Results from four sections of introductory biology (n = 629) randomized to treatments show that students who interacted with the stand-alone online learning module had significantly higher normalized gain scores on a cellular respiration assessment than students who only attended a traditional lecture as a means of concept introduction (p < 0.001, d = 0.59). These findings suggest a superior ability to convey certain introductory cellular respiration topics in a stand-alone manner outside of the classroom than in a more traditional lecture-based classroom setting.