Noel M. Harrison

Heterogeneous linear elastic trabecular bone modelling using micro-CT attenuation data and experimentally measured heterogeneous tissue properties

High-resolution voxel-based finite element software, such as FEEBE developed at the NCBES, is widely used for studying trabecular bone at the micro-scale. A new approach to determine heterogeneous bone tissue material properties for computational models was proposed in this study. The specimen-specific range of tissue moduli across strut width was determined from nanoindentation testing. This range was mapped directly using linear interpolation to that specimens micro-computed tomography (microCT) grey value range as input material properties for finite element analysis. The method was applied to cuboid trabecular bone samples taken from eight, 4-year-old (skeletally mature) ovine L5 vertebrae. Before undergoing experimental uniaxial compression tests, the samples were microCT scanned and 30 microm resolution finite element models were generated. The linear elastic finite element models were compressed to 1% strain. This material property assignment method for computational models accurately reproduced the experimentally determined apparent modulus and concentrations of stress at locations of failure.

Simulation of vertebral trabecular bone loss using voxel finite element analysis.

Trabecular bone loss in human vertebral bone is characterised by thinning and eventual perforation of the horizontal trabeculae. Concurrently, vertical trabeculae are completely lost with no histological evidence of significant thinning. Such bone loss results in deterioration in apparent modulus and strength of the trabecular core. In this study, a voxel-based finite element program was used to model bone loss in three specimens of human vertebral trabecular bone. Three sets of analyses were completed. In Set 1, strain adaptive resorption was modelled, whereby elements which were subject to the lowest mechanical stimulus (principal strain) were removed. In Set 2, both strain adaptive and microdamage mechanisms of bone resorption were included. Perforation of vertical trabeculae occurred due to microdamage resorption of elements with strains that exceeded a damage threshold. This resulted in collapse of the trabecular network under compression loading for two of the specimens tested. In Set 3, the damage threshold strain was gradually increased as bone loss progressed, resulting in reduced levels of microdamage resorption. This mechanism resulted in trabecular architectures in which vertical trabeculae had been perforated and which exhibited similar apparent modulus properties compared to experimental values reported in the literature. Our results indicate that strain adaptive remodelling alone does not explain the deterioration in mechanical properties that have been observed experimentally. Our results also support the hypothesis that horizontal trabeculae are lost principally by strain adaptive resorption, while vertical trabeculae may be lost due to perforation from microdamage resorption followed by rapid strain adaptive resorption of the remaining unloaded trabeculae.

Micromotion and friction evaluation of a novel surface architecture for improved primary fixation of cementless orthopaedic implants.

A new surface architecture (OsteoAnchor) for orthopaedic stem components has been developed, which incorporates a multitude of tiny anchor features for embedding into the bone during implantation. It was tested for its ability to provide improved primary fixation compared to existing surface coatings. Friction testing was performed on bovine trabecular bone. It was found that OsteoAnchor provided up to 76% greater resistance to transverse motion under simultaneous normal loading compared to the porous tantalum. Micromotion testing was performed on stem components implanted in cadaver ovine femurs. The micromotion amplitudes for the OsteoAnchor stem were significantly lower than for a corresponding plasma sprayed stem. These results demonstrate that OsteoAnchor has the potential to provide improved primary fixation for stem components in joint replacement operations.

An experimental and computational investigation of the post-yield behaviour of trabecular bone during vertebral device subsidence

Interbody fusion device subsidence has been reported clinically. An enhanced understanding of the mechanical behaviour of the surrounding bone would allow for accurate predictions of vertebral subsidence. The multiaxial inelastic behaviour of trabecular bone is investigated at a microscale and macroscale level. The post-yield behaviour of trabecular bone under hydrostatic and confined compression is investigated using microcomputed tomography-derived microstructural models, elucidating a mechanism of pressure-dependent yielding at the macroscopic level. Specifically, microstructural trabecular simulations predict a distinctive yield point in the apparent stress–strain curve under uniaxial, confined and hydrostatic compression. Such distinctive apparent stress–strain behaviour results from localised stress concentrations and material yielding in the trabecular microstructure. This phenomenon is shown to be independent of the plasticity formulation employed at a trabecular level. The distinctive response can be accurately captured by a continuum model using a crushable foam plasticity formulation in which pressure-dependent yielding occurs. Vertebral device subsidence experiments are also performed, providing measurements of the trabecular plastic zone. It is demonstrated that a pressure-dependent plasticity formulation must be used for continuum level macroscale models of trabecular bone in order to replicate the experimental observations, further supporting the microscale investigations. Using a crushable foam plasticity formulation in the simulation of vertebral subsidence, it is shown that the predicted subsidence force and plastic zone size correspond closely with the experimental measurements. In contrast, the use of von Mises, Drucker–Prager and Hill plasticity formulations for continuum trabecular bone models lead to over prediction of the subsidence force and plastic zone.

Investigation of the mechanical interaction of the trabecular core with an external shell using rapid prototype and finite element models.

The mechanical properties of vertebral bone have been widely studied with the ultimate goal of improving fracture risk prediction. However, the mechanical interaction between the cortical shell and the trabecular core is not well understood. The objective of this study was to investigate this interaction and to determine what effect it has on the ultimate strength of the whole bone. This objective was achieved by compression testing rapid prototype (RP) models of cylindrical trabecular bone cores, with and without an integral surrounding shell and incorporating increasing levels of artificially induced bone loss. Corresponding finite element (FE) models were generated and the load sharing of the shell and trabecular core was analysed under linear elastic loading conditions. The results of the physical RP model tests and corresponding FE analyses indicated that there was a reinforcing effect between the cortical shell and the trabecular core for all models tested and that the reinforcing effect became relatively more important to the ultimate strength of the whole bone as the bone volume fraction of the trabecular core decreased. It was found that two mechanisms contributed to the reinforcing effect: (i) load transfer from the highly stressed shell into the connecting outer trabeculae of the core for the shelled model. This did not occur for the un-shelled model where the load dropped off at the outer unsupported trabeculae; (ii) the stiffening effect on the shell due to the support provided by the connecting struts of the trabecular core, which serves to inhibit bending and buckling behaviour in the shell under compression loading. It was found that the stiffening on the shell was the more dominant contributor to the overall reinforcing effect between the shell and the trabecular core.

Local and regional mechanical characterisation of a collagen-glycosaminoglycan scaffold using high-resolution finite element analysis

Artificial tissue growth requires cells to proliferate and differentiate within the host scaffold. As cell function is governed by mechano-sensitive selection, tissue type is influenced by the microscopic forces exposed to the cells, which is a product of macroscopically straining the scaffold. Accordingly, the microscopic strain environment within a CG scaffold is offered here. Using muCT to characterise CG scaffold architecture, two high-resolution 3D FE models were used to predict the deformation mechanics. While also providing an analysis of region-specific features, such as relative density, pore diameters and microstructural elastic stability, the deformation patterns afforded strains to be inferred for seeded cells. The results indicate a regional dependence, in terms of architectural and mechanical properties. Specifically, the peripheral regions demonstrated the lowest volume fraction, the highest stress concentrations and the greatest potential for elastic instability. Conversely, the mid-region exhibited the most homogeneous environment. Based on the proviso of mechano-sensitive proliferation and differentiation, the findings suggest cell function will vary between CG scaffold regions. Further work should investigate the possibility of improving the fabrication process in order to deliver a construct in line with the mid-region, or alternatively, isolation of the mid-region may prove beneficial for cell culturing.

Preclinical trial of a novel surface architecture for improved primary fixation of cementless orthopaedic implants

BACKGROUND A new surface architecture for cementless orthopaedic implants (OsteoAnchor), which incorporates a multitude of tiny anchor features for enhancing primary fixation, was tested in an ovine hemi-arthroplasty pilot study. METHODS Test animals were implanted with a hip stem component incorporating the OsteoAnchor surface architecture produced using additive layer manufacturing and control animals were implanted with stems containing a standard plasma sprayed titanium coating. FINDINGS Intra-operative surgeon feedback indicated that superior primary fixation was achieved for the OsteoAnchor stems and rapid return to normal gait and load bearing was observed post-operation. Following a 16-week recovery time, histological evaluation of the excised femurs revealed in-growth of healthy bone into the porous structure of the OsteoAnchor stems. Bone in-growth was not achieved for the plasma sprayed stems. INTERPRETATION These results indicate the potential for the OsteoAnchor surface architecture to enhance both the initial stability and long term lifetime of cementless orthopaedic implants.

Investigation of the failure behaviour of vertebral trabecular architectures under uni-axial compression and wedge action loading conditions

Vertebral wedge fractures are associated with combined compression and flexure loading and are the most common fracture type for human vertebrae. In this study, rapid prototype (RP) biomodels of human vertebral trabecular bone were mechanically tested under uni-axial compression loading and also under wedge action loading (combination of compression and flexure loading) to investigate the mode of failure and the ultimate loads that could be sustained under these different loading conditions. Two types of trabecular bone models were manufactured and tested: baseline models which were directly derived from microCT scans of human thoracic vertebrae, and osteoporotic models which were generated from the baseline models using a custom-developed bone loss algorithm. The ultimate load for each model under compression and wedge action loading was determined and a video was recorded of each test so that failure mechanisms could be evaluated. The results of the RP model mechanical tests showed that the ultimate loads that could be supported by vertebral trabecular architectures under wedge action loading were less than those that could be supported under uni-axial compression loading by up to 26%. Also, the percentage reduction in strength from the baseline value due to osteoporotic bone loss was slightly less for the wedge action loading compared to uni-axial compression loading. Analysis of the videos for each test revealed that failure occurred in localised regions of the trabecular structure due to bending and buckling of thin vertical struts. These results suggest that vertebral trabecular bone is more susceptible to failure from wedge action loading compared to uni-axial compression loading, although this effect is not exacerbated by osteoporotic bone loss.

Micro–macro wear–fatigue of modular hip implant taper-lock coupling:

A multiscale methodology for fretting wear–fatigue analysis of a prosthetic hip implant taper-lock assembly is presented. On a macroscopic scale, the stem and cap surfaces are smooth. However, on a microscopic scale, surface roughness undulations are employed to accentuate the frictional contact for an enhanced mechanical locking effect. Macroscopic (global) modelling for fretting wear–fatigue prediction of two head/stem material combinations, namely, Co-28Cr-6Mo against direct metal laser sintering Ti-6Al-4V (Ti64) and forged Ti-6Al-4V, is investigated. The significance of fretting wear and fatigue in a hip joint for 10 years of service in a normal-weight male for moderately intense exercise is predicted for both material combinations. A micro-scale fretting wear–fatigue model of the surface undulation submodel is developed to predict wear and fatigue micro-cracking. A key aspect is the development of a multiscale wear–fatigue algorithm using adaptive meshing. Both material combination joints are shown to have sufficient wear resistance with direct metal laser sintering Ti64 performing better in terms of both fretting wear and fatigue.

Fatigue damage characterisation of MarBN steel for high temperature flexible operating conditions

This article is concerned with the high temperature low cycle fatigue behaviour of a new nano-strengthened martensitic-ferritic steel, MarBN. A range of strain-controlled, low cycle fatigue tests are presented on MarBN at 600 ℃ and 650 ℃, and compared with previously published data for a current state-of-the-art material, P91 steel, including microstructural analysis of the fracture mechanisms. A modified Chaboche damage law, incorporating Coffin–Manson life prediction, is implemented within a hyperbolic sine unified cyclic viscoplastic constitutive model. Calibration and validation of the model with respect to the effects of strain-rate and strain-range is performed based on an optimisation procedure for identification of the material parameters. The cyclic viscoplasticity model with damage successfully predicts fatigue damage evolution and life in the cyclically softening materials, MarBN and P91.