Nora A. Murphy

Accurate Intelligence Assessments in Social Interactions: Mediators and Gender Effects

Research indicates that people can assess a strangers measured intelligence more accurately than expected by chance, based on minimal information involving appearance and behavior. The present research documents behavioral correlates of perceived and measured intelligence and identifies behaviors that mediate the relationship between perceived and measured intelligence. In particular, when judges rated targets with video and auditory stimuli available, responsiveness to conversation partner, eye-gaze, and looking at partner while speaking were each significant mediators in the accurate assessment of intelligence. Each of those behaviors, as well as the percentage of looking at partner while speaking as a function of the targets own speaking time, were significant mediators in the video silent condition. Additionally, judge and target gender contributed to accurate intelligence assessments.

Recognition of posed and spontaneous dynamic smiles in young and older adults.

In 2 studies, we investigated age effects in the ability to recognize dynamic posed and spontaneous smiles. Study 1 showed that both young and older adult participants were above chance in their ability to distinguish between posed and spontaneous smiles in young adults. In Study 2, we found that young adult participant performance declined when judging a combination of both young and older adult target smiles, while older adult participants outperformed young adult participants in distinguishing between posed and spontaneous smiles. A synthesis of results across the 2 studies showed a small-to-medium age effect (d = -0.40), suggesting that older adults have an advantage in discriminating between smile types. Mixed stimuli (i.e., a mixture of young and older adult faces) may impact accurate smile discrimination. In future research, both the sources (cues) and behavioral effects of age-related differences in the discrimination of positive expressions should be investigated.

Communication patterns and satisfaction levels in three-dimensional versus real-life intimate relationships.

The present study compared communication patterns and satisfaction levels between three-dimensional (3D) and real-life intimate relationships using a sample of 71 participants who were concurrently involved in an intimate relationship within Second Life and a separate real-life romantic relationship. Participants indicated that the quality of their communication was significantly better in their Second-Life relationship and that they experienced higher levels of satisfaction with their virtual partners. The more positive or idealized view of the 3D relationships may have been due to higher levels of focused interaction and reduced stressors in the virtual world and the greater length, and associated problems, in participants real-life relationships. In addition, the presence of a concurrent relationship within Second Life could have negatively affected participants judgments of their real-life relationships. These data offer the first detailed assessment of communication patterns and satisfaction levels in intimate relationships across the real and 3D virtual realms as the number of users and romantic partners in immersive virtual environments continue to grow.

Psychological Benefits of Participation in Three-dimensional Virtual Worlds for Individuals with Real-world Disabilities

One hundred and ninety-six individuals with real-world disabilities were administered a battery of psychological adjustment measures soon after joining the three-dimensional virtual world of Second Life®. After three months, 61 participants who continued to be actively involved in Second Life were re-administered the adjustment measures and completed a survey about their virtual and real-life experiences during the interval between assessments. Participants’ scores significantly improved on measures of affective states (depression, anxiety, positive emotion, life satisfaction, and feelings of loneliness) and self-evaluation (self-esteem). An index of overall change was associated with the number of virtual friends and group affiliations in Second Life, as well as feelings about the self as a result of involvement in the virtual world. The current study provides initial empirical support that three-dimensional virtual worlds can serve as a psychologically beneficial context for individuals with real-life disabilities.

Realism, idealization, and potential negative impact of 3D virtual relationships

One hundred and ninety-nine participants, each of whom was currently involved in an intimate relationship within the 3D virtual world of Second Life, completed measures assessing whether they (1) viewed their 3D virtual relationship as an exercise in fantasy or one that had a quality of realism, and (2) perceived the personality characteristics of their 3D partner in more positive or idealized terms than a current or recent real life partner. Additionally, 71 of the 199 participants (36%) who were concurrently involved in a real life romantic relationship as well as their Second Life relationship provided data regarding the potential negative impact of Second Life relationships on co-occurring real life relationships. Results indicated that (1) the majority of participants viewed their Second Life relationships as real rather than as a form of game-playing, (2) participants generally reported more positive or idealized personality traits for their Second Life partners compared to their real life partners, and (3) a portion of participants in co-occurring Second Life and real life relationships indicated that their virtual relationship served as an emotional competitor or potential threat to their real life relationship, with the potential for detrimental effects rising as the couple progressively adds non-immersive digital and physical channels of communication to the original 3D relationship.

Reliability and Validity of Nonverbal Thin Slices in Social Interactions

Four studies investigated the reliability and validity of thin slices of nonverbal behavior from social interactions including (a) how well individual slices of a given behavior predict other slices in the same interaction; (b) how well a slice of a given behavior represents the entirety of that behavior within an interaction; (c) how long a slice is necessary to sufficiently represent the entirety of a behavior within an interaction; (d) which slices best capture the entirety of behavior, across different behaviors; and (e) which behaviors (of six measured behaviors) are best captured by slices. Notable findings included strong reliability and validity for thin slices of gaze and nods, and that a 1.5-min slice from the start of an interaction may adequately represent some behaviors. Results provide useful information to researchers making decisions about slice measurement of behavior.

Sexuality in the 3D Internet and its relationship to real-life sexuality

The emerging 3D Internet provides a new medium for cyber-sexuality and a context for conducting empirical research on sexuality in digital environments. This study investigated sexual behaviour and attitudes within Second Life, the most prominent 3D virtual world, and explored the relationship between sexuality in Second Life and sexuality in real life. The results indicate a wide range of common and experimental sexual practices in Second Life, with sexual involvement occurring at faster pace and with a larger number of partners than in real life. In addition, these sexual practices occur in a range of relationship contexts, from brief casual encounters to long-term commitment and virtual marriage. Participants were evenly split on which realm was more sexually satisfying, with many participants indicating that sexuality in Second Life offers greater freedom and less inhibition than in real life. Participants also tended to view the two domains of sexual experience as largely independent, with sexuality in one realm having little effect on sexuality in the other. Overall, these data offer the first detailed description of sexuality in the emerging Immersive Internet and provide a less prurient and deviant view of sexuality in 3D virtual settings than is often depicted in popular media accounts.

Multiple Personality Order: Physical and Personality Characteristics of the Self, Primary Avatar and Alt

One hundred and four participants, all of whom had multiple avatars in the 3D virtual world of Second LifeTM, completed a set of measures to assess how physical characteristics, activity preferences, personality features, and social-emotional processes are similar or different across various combinations of the physical self, the primary avatar, and the sole or most frequently used alt. Data was also obtained on the frequency of alt use, motivations for constructing alts, and the main forms of identity experimentation engaged in with alts. The combined results were then used to construct a model of how personality systems composed of multiple offline and online identities operate and form a “multiple personality order.” As 3D virtual worlds and the global population of avatars continue to grow, creating and coordinating a system of multiple offline and online identities will increasingly become a normative feature of human development and, like a choreographer managing a company of dancers or a conductor leading an orchestra, the operation of personality will take on a quality of performance art.

Addiction to the 3-dimensional Internet: Estimated prevalence and relationship to real world addictions

This study examined the prevalence of addiction to Second Life, the most prominent 3D virtual world, and found that approximately one-third of participants met criterion for Internet addiction or at-risk status on the internet addiction test (Young, K. (1998a). Caught in the net: How to recognize the signs of Internet Addiction and a winning strategy for recovery. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc). Participants with higher levels of addiction were more likely to have resided in Second Life for a shorter period of time than non-compulsive users, stay logged on for lengthy periods of time, view sexual experience in Second Life as an important activity, and report experiencing stronger immersion and more benefits from using Second Life. In addition, moderate positive correlations were found between addiction to Second Life and various areas of compulsion in real life. These data provide the first assessment of the prevalence of addiction to the emerging 3D internet and serve as an empirical baseline as the number of users and graphical realism of 3D virtual worlds continues to grow.

References to people in the communications of female and male youths with mental retardation

Gender-related differences have consistently been reported in the language of adults and children with no disabilities. One well-replicated finding is that females discuss people and relationships more often than do males, particularly in conversations with other females. These stylistic variations in language are considered to have implications for the adaptive functioning of language users, most particularly females. Although studied thus far only in nondisabled individuals, such issues of language style use may be of equal or greater concern for those with mental retardation. How does a cognitive impairment intensify or reduce gender-linked language styles and their effects? Language transcripts were obtained from eight male and eight female participants with retardation, interacting separately with one male and one female adult partner. Half of the participants used speech as their primary mode of communication: the others relied on vocalization, gesture, or augmented modes. Participants using speech showed gender-linked language patterns similar to nondisabled individuals, with females discussing people significantly more often than males. Females using nonspeech modes, in contrast, showed a severe reduction in person-referencing that was not accountable by their expressive speech limitations.