Norbert Kaul

Hydrothermal activity and the evolution of the seismic properties of upper oceanic crust

In order to investigate the impact of off-axis hydrothermal circulation on changes of the seismic properties of upper oceanic crust (layer 2A), we performed an extensive geophysical survey on the eastern flank of the East Pacific Rise at 14°S. Seismic refraction and heat flow data were obtained along a 720-km-long and 25 to 40-km wide corridor, covering thinly sedimented seafloor created since 8.5 Ma. The seismic data yield a seismic velocity of ∼2.9 km/s at the top of 0.5-m.y.-old basement rocks. Within about 8 m.y. the velocity increases gradually to a value of mature oceanic crust (∼4.3 km/s). Heat flow data, derived from 43 in situ thermal conductivity and 86 geothermal gradient measurements, suggest that an open hydrothermal circulation system persists for at least 6–7 m.y. In crust older than 7 Ma, regional heat flow is close to values predicted by plate cooling models, suggesting that hydrothermal circulation is going to cease. Considering published dating of alteration minerals, it appears that the permeability of uppermost oceanic crust has decreased to values insufficient to promote a vigorous hydrothermal circulation within 10–15 m.y. This idea may explain why seismic velocities in the Pacific ocean have not changed significantly in igneous crust older than 8–10 Ma. In regions where juvenile and consistently hot crust is buried rapidly by sediments the evolution of the seismic properties is quite different; velocities increase rapidly and reach values of mature oceanic crust within 1–2 m.y. We therefore favor a model where basement temperature is governing the evolution of the seismic properties of upper oceanic crust [Stephen and Harding, 1983; Rohr, 1994].

Strike-slip faults mediate the rise of crustal-derived fluids and mud volcanism in the deep sea

We report on newly discovered mud volcanoes located at ~4500 m water depth ~90 km west of the deformation front of the accretionary wedge of the Gulf of Cadiz, and thus outside of their typical geotectonic environment. Seismic data suggest that fluid flow is mediated by a >400-km-long strike-slip fault marking the transcurrent plate boundary between Africa and Eurasia. Geochemical data (Cl, B, Sr, 87 Sr/ 86 Sr, d 18 O, dD) reveal that fluids originate in oceanic crust older than 140 Ma. On their rise to the surface, these fluids receive strong geochemical signals from recrystallization of Upper Jurassic carbonates and clay-mineral dehydration in younger terrigeneous units. At present, reports of mud volcanoes in similar deep-sea settings are rare, but given that the large area of transform-type plate boundaries has been barely investigated, such pathways of fluid discharge may provide an important, yet unappreciated link between the deeply buried oceanic crust and the deep ocean.

Asymmetric sedimentation on young ocean floor at the East Pacific Rise, 15°S

Sediment cover over mid-ocean ridges is expected generally to thicken with seafloor age and distance from spreading center, reflecting symmetric sediment accumulation on both flanks of the ridge. In high quality reflection seismic records and sediment echosounding measurements recently collected across the East Pacific Rise we find a strong asymmetric distribution of sediments. On the eastern flank in the EXCO (Exchange between Crust and Ocean) area at 15°S sediment thickness increases only slowly with distance from the spreading axis, and hence crustal age, to about 15 m on 4.5 Ma old crust and 30 m on 7 Ma old crust. Sediments are draping the basement rather than ponding. On the western flank sediment was sampled that is already 70 m thick on 4.5 Ma old crust and up to 150 m on about 7 Ma old crust. Sediment ponds imply efficient transport by gravitationally driven turbidity currents. Sediment accumulation on the western ridge flanks and the rather flat seafloor indicate a redistribution of sediments. Accumulation of sediments corresponds with the extreme asymmetry of a helium plume at 15°S in the South Pacific. A tongue of high 3He extending westward from the rise near 2500–2700 m depth and a corresponding tongue of high temperature suggesting that the helium plume introduced by hydrothermal activity on the EPR spreading axis is being carried westward by abyssal currents. Fall-out of hydrothermal plumes may contribute and intensify sedimentation on the western flanks. However, it is reasonable to hypothesize that hydrothermal plumes are important agents in the dispersal of the larvae of hydrothermal vent fauna and may be responsible for the enhancement of pelagic zooplankton biomass resulting in a larger mass of pelagic rain.

The Lance Insertion Retardation meter (LIRmeter): an instrument for in situ determination of sea floor properties—technical description and performance evaluation

Within this paper we present the Lance Insertion Retardation meter (LIRmeter) as an instrument to determine the strength of marine sediments by a measurement of the deceleration of a probe during penetration into the seafloor. The instrument has been designed for the penetration of the upper 4 m of marine sediments and is therefore suitable for site investigation applications such as cable route surveys. The LIRmeter can be easily deployed from a floating platform in water depths of up to 4,500 m. The system is suitable for long lasting missions (more than 12 h) with pogo-style measurements due to a rugged design and a special selection of sensors and electronics. The LIRmeter provides a custom data acquisition software and a web interface for acquisition setup, data download and system administration. An adaptation of the instrument to specific problems (i.e. extremely soft sediments) is possible due to interchangeable tips and adjustable weights of the lance. The specifically developed user interface and the rugged design make the instrument very easy to handle and to maintain. The sensors and the data acquisition were tested in the laboratory as well as in the field. Field measurements took place in the North Sea, where numerous measurements were performed. This paper gives an extensive description of the design of the LIRmeter (mechanics, electronics and data acquisition) supplemented by a description of data analysis and results of field- and laboratory-tests.

Validation of impact penetrometer data by cone penetration testing and shallow seismic data within the regional geology of the Southern North Sea

This study presents the assessment of total cone resistance from in situ deceleration measurements using the Lance Insertion Retardation meter (LIRmeter) in the Southern North Sea. The penetrometer is equipped with a measurement lance that is up to 6 m in length. The aim was to validate LIRmeter data interpretation within the regional geological context by comparison with static velocity cone penetration testing (CPT) and sub-bottom profiles. In total, 13 datasets were taken, in addition to preexisting hydroacoustical and static velocity CPT datasets. The dynamically acquired data were processed and compared to the reference static velocity data. The validation encourages the use of acceleration-based dynamic penetration tests, since a high degree of agreement was demonstrated between independently acquired dynamic and static cone resistance data. Moreover, the results reveal evidence of two successive formations with different geotechnical properties, consistent with existing knowledge on the regional setting. Additionally, there is novel indication of an incised glacial valley with muddy low-permeability sediments extending much further than reported to date, which would necessitate updating of older maps. The main advantage of penetrometer-based deceleration measurements lies in the robustness of the method, and the reliability of the sensors. However, penetration depth is, for dimensioning reasons, limited to the order of a few meters. Additionally, data processing includes the dependency of knowledge about the soil type to correct the dynamic data. These limitations can be satisfactorily outweighed by combination with reference data from static velocity tests, as demonstrated by integrating these data into a soil classification scheme.

Formation of hydrothermal pits and the role of seamounts in the Guatemala Basin (Equatorial East Pacific) from heat flow, seismic, and core studies

We acquired seismic and heat flow data and collected sediment cores in three areas in the Guatemala Basin (Cocos Plate, Eastern Pacific) to investigate the process by which depressions (pits) in the sedimentary cover on young oceanic crust were formed. Median heat flow of 55 mW/m2 for the three areas is about half of the expected conductive cooling value. The heat deficit is caused by massive recharge of cold seawater into the upper crust through seamounts which is inferred from depressed heat flow in the vicinity of seamounts. Heat flow inside of pits is always elevated, in some cases up to three times (max. 300 mW/m2) relative to background. None of the geochemical pore water profiles from cores inside and outside of the pits show any evidence of active fluid flow inside the pits. All three areas originated within the high productivity equatorial zone and moved northwest over the past 15 to 18 Ma. Pits found in the working areas are likely dissolution structures formed by diffuse hydrothermal venting in a zone of high biogenic carbonate production which were sealed when they moved north. It is likely that these pits were discharge sites of hydrothermal siphons where recharging seamounts could feed cold seawater via the upper crust to several discharging pits. Probably pit density on the whole Cocos Plate is similar to the three working areas and which may explain the huge heat deficit of the Cocos Plate. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

The role of mud volcanism and deep-seated dewatering processes in the Nankai Trough accretionary prism and Kumano Basin, Japan

Circulation of water at moderate depths in subduction zones is dominantly driven by clay mineral dehydration over distinct pressure and temperature gradients. The signature of these dehydration reactions is found in mud volcano pore waters, however, it is largely unknown, how much of the deep-seated fluids are emitted at mud volcanoes. To unravel this relation for the region off the Kii Peninsula, Japan, we calculated the water volume that is subducted in the Nankai Trough using input data from IODP holes C0011 and C0012 and the correspondent water volume released from the subducted plate under the Kumano Basin, in an area where 13 mud volcanoes are located. According to our model, water released at depth in the mud volcano area is derived almost entirely from basaltic saponite and sedimentary smectite transformation (up to 96%). Nonetheless, the mud volcanoes themselves expel ≪1% of the total volume. To test the contribution of the accreted strata and the Kumano Basin fill to the water budget, we run a second model. Water loss due to compaction of sediments and smectite-illite transition below the basin floor have been calculated. The results were compared with salinity measurements on background cores scattered in the study area to extrapolate the volume of water loss at depth. The comparison of the two methods yielded similar results and led us to conclude that the bulk part of the deep-seated fluid re-enters the hydrosphere via the basin floor, a mechanism rarely taken into account in fluid budgets in the literature.

Geothermal heat flux in the Amundsen Sea sector of West Antarctica: New insights from temperature measurements, depth to the bottom of the magnetic source estimation, and thermal modeling

Focused research on the Pine Island and Thwaites glaciers, which drain the West Antarctic Ice Shelf (WAIS) into the Amundsen Sea Embayment (ASE), revealed strong signs of instability in recent decades that result from variety of reasons, such as inflow of warmer ocean currents and reverse bedrock topogra- phy, and has been established as the Marine Ice Sheet Instability hypothesis. Geothermal heat flux (GHF) is a poorly constrained parameter in Antarctica and suspected to affect basal conditions of ice sheets, i.e., basal melting and subglacial hydrology. Thermomechanical models demonstrate the influential boundary condition of geothermal heat flux for (paleo) ice sheet stability. Due to a complex tectonic and magmatic history of West Antarctica, the region is suspected to exhibit strong heterogeneous geothermal heat flux variations. We present an approach to investigate ranges of realistic heat fluxes in the ASE by different methods, discuss direct observations, and 3-D numerical models that incorporate boundary conditions derived from various geophysical studies, including our new Depth to the Bottom of the Magnetic Source (DBMS) estimates. Our in situ temperature measurements at 26 sites in the ASE more than triples the number of direct GHF observations in West Antarctica. We demonstrate by our numerical 3-D models that GHF spatially varies from 68 up to 110 mW m-2.