Norbert Ross

Cultural and experiential differences in the development of folkbiological induction

Careys (1985) book on conceptual change and the accompanying argument that childrens biology initially is organized in terms of naive psychology has sparked a great detail of research and debate. This body of research on childrens biology has, however, been almost exclusively been based on urban, majority culture children in the US or in other industrialized nations. The development of folkbiological knowledge may depend on cultural and experiential background. If this is the case, then urban majority culture children may prove to be the exception rather than the rule, because plants and animals do not play a significant role in their everyday life. Urban majority culture children, rural majority culture children, and rural Native American (Menominee) children were given a property projection task based on Careys original paradigm. Each group produced a unique profile of development. Only urban children showed evidence for early anthropocentrism, suggesting that the co-mingling of psychology and biology may be a product of an impoverished experience with nature. In comparison to urban majority culture children even the youngest rural children generalized in terms of biological affinity. In addition, all ages of Native American children and the older rural majority culture children (unlike urban children) gave clear evidence of ecological reasoning. These results show that both culture and expertise (exposure to nature) play a role in the development of folkbiological thought.

Folkbiology of freshwater fish

Cross-cultural comparisons of categorization often confound cultural factors with expertise. This paper reports four experiments on the conceptual behavior of Native American and majority-culture fish experts. The two groups live in the same general area and engage in essentially the same set of fishing-related behaviors. Nonetheless, cultural differences were consistently observed. Majority-culture fish experts tended to sort fish into taxonomic and goal-related categories. They also showed an influence of goals on probes of ecological relations, tending to answer in terms of relations involving adult fish. Native American fish experts, in contrast, were more likely to sort ecologically. They were also more likely to see positive and reciprocal ecological relations, tending to answer in terms of relations involving the full life cycle of fish. Further experiments support the view that the cultural differences do not reflect different knowledge bases but rather differences in the organization and accessibility of knowledge. At a minimum the results suggest that similar activities within a well-structured domain do not necessarily lead to common conceptualizations.

Categorization and reasoning in relation to culture and expertise

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the categorization and reasoning in relation to culture and expertise. It focuses on categorization and the use of categories in reasoning, and a central question concerns the generality of results across populations. It focuses on the domain of folkbiology for two reasons: There is a rich literature concerning how humans categorize and reason about plants and animals, and there is significant variability in folkbiological knowledge within and between cultures. If it should turn out that variations in knowledge systems, goals, and activities differentially affect peoples ways of conceptualizing the natural world, then lopsided attention to a single participant pool risks biasing interpretation and generalizations that do not generalize. This chapter presents several studies that explore that knowledge and expertise affect how individuals reason about biological categories. These studies indicate that experts apply more specific reasoning strategies than do novices. The latter seem to use more abstract principles when they reason about biological species. The strategies applied by undergraduate participants seem to be a consequence of the lack of knowledge and hence the lack of access to concrete chains of reasoning.

Ethnography and Experiments: Cultural Models and Expertise Effects Elicited with Experimental Research Techniques

This article reports the results of two independent studies dealing with saliency effects within the domain of folkbiological knowledge. In study 1, the authors present data from a free-listing task that explored tree-name generation among Tzotzil Maya of Zinacantán (Chiapas). Study 2 compares Menominee Native Americans with majority culture (nonprofessional) fish experts in central Wisconsin. The studies explore patterns of informant agreement and disagreement, looking at the accessibility of certain kinds of biological knowledge, both within and across cultural groups. The authors show that differences in levels of expertise and practice, as well as habitual patterns of knowledge organization (spontaneous categorization), can lead to significant differences in the salience or accessibility of certain types of knowledge.

Naming the Animals that Come to Mind: Effects of Culture and Experience on Category Fluency

This article considers the semantic structure of the animal category from a cross-cultural developmental perspective. Children and adults from three North American communities (urban majority culture, rural majority culture and rural Native American) were prompted to generate animal names, and the resulting lists were analyzed for their underlying dimensionality and for the typicality or salience of specific animal names. The semantic structure of the animal category appeared to be consistent across cultural groups, but the relative salience of animal kinds varied as a function of culture and first-hand experience with the natural world. These results provide evidence of a shared representation of animals across disparate cultures but also indicate a role for culture in shaping animal concepts.

Thinking about biology. Modular constraints on categorization and reasoning in the everyday life of Americans, Maya, and scientists

This essay explores the universal cognitive bases of biological taxonomy and taxonomic inference using cross-cultural experimental work with urbanized Americans and forest-dwelling Maya Indians. A universal, essentialist appreciation of generic species appears as the causal foundation for the taxonomic arrangement of biodiversity, and for inference about the distribution of causally-related properties that underlie biodiversity. Universal folkbiological taxonomy is domain-specific: its structure does not spontaneously or invariably arise in other cognitive domains, like substances, artifacts or persons. It is plausibly an innately-determined evolutionary adaptation to relevant and recurrent aspects of ancestral hominid environments, such as the need to recognize, locate, react to, and profit from many ambient species. Folkbiological concepts are special players in cultural evolution, whose native stability attaches to more variable and difficult-to-learn representational forms, thus enhancing the latters prospects for regularity and recurrence in transmission within and across cultures. This includes knowledge that cumulatively enriches (folk expertise), overrides (religious belief) or otherwise transcends (science) the commonsense ontology prescribed by folkbiology. Finally, the studies summarized here indicate that results gathered from “standard populations” in regard to biological categorization and reasoning more often than not fail to generalize in straightforward ways to humanity at large. This suggests the need for much more serious attention to cross-cultural research on basic cognitive processes.

Gendered Experiences of Migration and Conceptual Knowledge of Illness

Abstract Migration is a gendered process which may differentially alter conceptual models of illness as variation and change within specific sub-domains reflect unique experiences and interactions. Forty Mexican migrants completed a questionnaire consisting of 30 true/false questions regarding the symptoms, causes, and treatments of 19 illnesses (570 total questions). Results were analyzed using the Cultural Consensus Model and residual agreement analyses to measure patterns of inter-informant agreement. While men and women share overall agreement, they differ significantly in conceptions of treatment. In general, men over-extend the efficacy of treatment options while women restrict the abilities of folk healers and emphasize dietary changes in treating many illnesses. Variations reflect different social roles and interactions as migration patterns and living conditions reinforce gendered roles in medical decision-making. Women have greater experience with illnesses and interactions with biomedical services, which causes them to approximate biomedical providers’ model of treatment.

Triad Tasks, a Multipurpose Tool to Elicit Similarity Judgments: The Case of Tzotzil Maya Plant Taxonomy:

The universality of multipurpose taxonomies has been widely established in folk biology. However, recent studies with nonprofessional fish experts in the United States as well as with tree experts in the Chicago area suggest that different goals can affect category organization of natural kinds. This article reports the results of a triad task study exploring specific aspects of the multipurpose plant taxonomy among the Tzotzil Maya of Zinacantán in the Highlands of Chiapas. Despite previously encountered differences with respect to saliency, no corresponding differences with respect to conceptual organization could be detected. A balanced incomplete block design was applied. Resolution was enhanced by allowing participants to judge the three items as either “too similar” or “too different” in addition to single out one item as different. Analyses explore (1) the pattern of informant agreement (as a precondition for), (2) the content of existing models, and (3) the saliency of responses.

Language, Culture and Spatial Cognition: Bringing anthropology to the table

Languages vary in their semantic partitioning of the world. This has led to speculation that language might shape basic cognitive processes. Spatial cognition has been an area of research in which linguistic relativity – the effect of language on thought – has both been proposed and rejected. Prior studies have been inconclusive, lacking experimental rigor or appropriate research design. Lacking detailed ethnographic knowledge as well as failing to pay attention to intralanguage variations, these studies often fall short of defining an appropriate concept of language, culture, and cognition. Our study constitutes the first research exploring (1) individuals speaking different languages yet living (for generations) in the same immediate environment and (2) systematic intralanguage variation. Results show that language does not shape spatial cognition and plays at best the secondary role of foregrounding alternative possibilities for encoding spatial arrangements.

The Rise and Fall of Political Movements in the Late 19th Century and First Half of 20th Century Kurdistan (an Organisational Analysis)

Social organization as a subsystem of a large system of social organization has a unique governance capabilities. The level of social organization autonomous ability what is better to promote the level and the ability of the social governance’s system more scientifically , more modernization, especially in the modern open society. In this paper ,it is based on the perspective of system theory, the meaning of social governance, the status of social organizations, and the effective ways that social organizations to participate in social governance are put forward. In the condition on the basis of the theory of system, the ways of the organizations to participate in social governance shows: overall planning development goals, strengthen the top-level design, perfect social organizations working content, strengthen the responsibility consciousness.The twin challenges of building pathways to sustainable development and reducing poverty have never been more pressing and cannot be effectively tackled without gender equality. It is the realization of this that prompted the United Nations to include poverty elimination and fight against inequality and injustice in its post 2015 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Equality among men and women is more than a matter of social justice—it is a fundamental human right. It also makes good economic sense. When women have equal access to education and go on to participate fully in business and decision-making, they are a key force against poverty. Women with equal rights are better educated, healthier, and have greater access to land, jobs and financial resources. Their increased earning power in turn raises household incomes. By enhancing women’s control over decision-making in the household, gender equality also translates into better prospects and greater well-being of children, reducing poverty of future generations. It is against this backdrop that this paper examines the critical nexus between gender equality, poverty reduction and sustainable development. The paper makes the case that achieving gender equality and realizing the human rights, dignity and capabilities of a diverse group of women is a central requirement in the fight against poverty and a just and sustainable world. The paper also submits that essential public services like health and education, benefit women, men, girls and boys equitably.Wannan Incident, as an important event significantly affecting the Anti-Japanese War and Kuomintang (KMT)-Communist Party of China (CPC) relationship during the second KMT-CPC cooperation, has promoted KMT and CPC to make significant adjustment in policy under the premise of continuing to resist Japan. The KMT-CPC relationship and their policy adjustment, from a fundamental point of view, depend on the development of the Sino-Japanese contradiction. Under the leadership of CPC Central Committee, the Southern Bureau has implemented the Party’s principles and policies as the CPC delegation and Eighth Route Army office. It has taken a principled but flexible strategy to promote the democratic political process in the KMT ruled areas, and has made outstanding contributions in maintaining the KMT-CPC cooperation and the Anti-Japanese national united front.China does not auction radio spectrum for wireless service but uses operations license granted by the government. The paper takes on LTE license to show how a flawed policy impairs adoption of LTE technology in China and how excessive interference hurts telecom operators. LTE has two flavors: TDD and FDD. The Chinese government favors TD-LTE, a “minority” technology, to rescue struggling China Mobile from its failing 3G service, and to make China a leader in LTE. China does this by suppressing LTE FDD and China Mobile’s rivals China Unicom and China Telecom that prefer LTE FDD. As the paper argues, the bad policy has turned a business decision to a politically charged issue that brings harm to LTE development. The high price China has to pay: delayed LTE deployment, eliminated competition, discontent public and a laggard behind many countries in a tight race. The paper then traces the root of the bad policy, what can happen when technology is viewed with political bias, how extraneous factors influence directions of technology without challenge, and what China can learn from the mistake and prevent it from impairing a promising technology. Key words : LTE; TD-LTE; LTE FDD; business decision; 3G; competition; technology adoption; government interferenceBased on the specific regional culture, targeted at configuration of landscape plants at the edge of campus, this article studies the selection, art, culture, function and ecology of plants, and highlights the principles of people orientation and harmonious humanity. It takes Henan Polytechnic University as an example, puts forward the principles of planning landscape plants at the edge of campus, and explores new ideas for deigning the spaces at campus edge.As China’s economic strength and political influence have been greatly increased during the past decades, Tai Chi culture, which has been long viewed as one of the very essential parts of traditional Chinese culture, is being given a golden opportunity to step into the world. Tai Chi contains a variety of values that are quite beneficial for people all over the world to live a peaceful and healthy life. Actually it represents a life attitude that stresses the harmony between man and nature, which is obviously significant in the contemporary society. Today with the intensification of globalization, Tai Chi culture cannot and also should not be restricted only to Chinese people. Instead, it should belong to the whole world. However, the international communication of Tai Chi culture meets both challenges and opportunities. Some myriad stereotypes, misperceptions, and distortions about China may hinder the cultural spreading. The conflict and competition between Tai Chi and other cultures are another problem. In addition, lack of theoretical study of international communication systems should be taken into serious consideration. On the other hand, the culture communication is faced with a favorable internal and external political and economic environment. Besides, practical demands in strained life of contemporary society also call for the wide spreading of Tai Chi culture. In short, joint efforts should be made to overcome the challenges and make full use of the opportunities so as to promote the worldwide spreading of Tai Chi culture.cet article presente un bref apercu de l’histoire des Forces Armees espagnoles remarquant l’importance de l’institution militaire et son role dans l’histoire espagnole contemporaine. Depuis la mort de Franco il y a eu une tentative de canaliser le commandement des Forces Armees dans la voie democratique et constitutionnelle, jouant un role essentiel dans ce sens le general Gutierrez Mellado. Depuis 1981, deux mesures importantes dans le domaine militaire sont prises: la dite Cause 2/81 pour la poursuite judiciaire des responsables de la tentative de coup d’Etat, et la demande d’adhesion de l’Espagne a l’OTAN, etape tres importante qui determinera l’avenir du pays et conduira a la modernisation des Forces Armees espagnoles, comparables, depuis, a celles du monde occidental. Apres la victoire socialiste de 1982 le changement de position du PSOE fut clef: le gouvernement transforma habilement son anti-americanisme initial, ce qui permit l’acces du pays a l’OTAN apres le referendum de 1986, modifia profondement l’armee, et elimina les tensions militaires. La derniere etape du processus de modernisation fut menee par le gouvernement Aznar, qui reussit la professionnalisation des Forces Armees et l’integration de l’Espagne dans la structure militaire de l’OTAN.A teacher’s “accomplishment” plays an important role in education by “soul to soul influence”, especially in the era that Internet changes human life, how to recognize the teacher still has a very large space for improvement. In the era of “Internet +”, the developmental pursuits of students have undergone great changes, but real existence of teacher remains unchanged, so teachers should properly treat the accomplishment of change and unchanged: To highlight the humanities of tolerance, sincerity and kindness; integrate individuation and innovation in profession; accumulate the beauty of client and data thinking.Jinan Old Railway Station, as the only Germanic-style station architectural group in the world, was a landmark of Jinan with high architectural and cultural value. Both its demolition and reconstruction have affected the nerves of Jinan people. This article starts with from a review of the historical evolution of Jinan Old Railway Station, focuses on the history, architectural and cultural value of this station, and further explores the significance of the reconstruction of Jinan Old Railway Station.Action research method is taken in the research. The researchers conduct Chinese character multi-dimensional education from the aspects of experience & expression of Chinese characters forms to cultural infiltration and cooperative learning upon Yiyi who is interested in Chinese culture as well as obstacles in Chinese learning and social adaptability. Yiyi’s imagination, observation ability, knowledge, experience and prosocial behavior, etc. were observed and analyzed by qualitative research method through interviews with teachers, parents and young children and analysis on preschool painting and handiwork in Chinese character multi-dimensional education. The result shows that Yiyi’s imagination has become more and more and her comprehensive ability has improved; knowledge and experience have gradually enriched and observation ability has become persistent; prosocial behavior has increased and enhanced.As the soul of Chinese national culture and profound foundation of advanced socialist culture, Chinese excellent traditional culture reflects the essence of national culture. Vocational colleges shoulder the heavy task of cultivating high-quality workers and skilled talents. It is objectively necessary to regard Chinese excellent traditional culture education as a basic general education course system and scientifically integrate it in course teaching of vocational colleges. Besides, this is an important acting point and key point of course setting innovation in vocational colleges. Vocational colleges must scientifically and reasonably plan course setting of Chinese excellent traditional culture.With economic globalization, trades all over the world have become more frequent, commodities have circulated more rapidly, and diversified consumer demands have been also met. The public has come to realize the importance of brand effect in stimulating consumption and exploring market. The promotion of advertisement on the product is beyond the reach of other forms and has been favored by the public. With the continuous emergence of foreign products, advertisements tend to have more diversified forms and plentiful connotations. In this context, it’s especially important to study on the principles and strategies in foreign brand translation. From a perspective of functional equivalence, this article proposes the “Three Aesthetics” principle and association principle in brand translation, has an introduction to the commonly used translation methods, and puts forward examples to further discuss the feasibility to implement foreign brand translation under the guidance of functional equivalence.Under the background of the competition and upgrading between enterprises; management of enterprises has been the focus of competition. Whether the enterprise could update its management has been a key factor for the enterprise’s success during the competition; which requires the manager of the enterprise paying high attention to the management as well as enhancing the core competitiveness by management innovation. This paper has emphasized briefly the importance of the enterprise’s management innovation to enterprise’s development; and analyzed the basic principles for the enterprise’s management innovation. Based on the current obstacles existed in enterprise’s management innovation, this paper discussed the basic strategies for enterprise’s management innovation, which expected to offer some effective ways for the management innovation work’s carrying out. As an important component factor of enterprise’s core competitiveness improvement, management innovation has played a more and more important role in that field. Currently, our countries’ enterprise management innovation still developed in a low level; and there are large gaps between enterprise’s management innovation and enterprise’s development. Faced with the drags to enterprise’s competitiveness caused by backward enterprise’s management innovation, the enterprises need to have a more objective and general view towards management innovation; envisage the deficiency in the management innovation and take effective measures to update so that the enterprise could improve its management skills and lead up more energy for enterprises’ healthy development. Key words: Enterprise management; Innovation; Principles; StrategiesAlthough voluntary carbon offset market is an important solution to the climate crisis, there hides a variety of risks behind it because of lack of global registration system and measurement method. In this paper, we focused on the default risk from the original carbon supplier in voluntary carbon market, and built an evaluation indicator system according to several principles. Then analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and fuzzy comprehensive evaluation technology were used to construct evaluation model to measure default risk level which are simple but effective. Finally, a simulation case proved the evaluation indicator system and model proposed can not only work out the comprehensive risk level but also calculate risk level from different aspects, which is useful for stakeholders to make their decisions in voluntary carbon market. Key words: Default risk level; Carbon credit trade; Voluntary carbon offset market; Comprehensive evaluationA citizens’ society needs and promotes the behavior of helping and sympathy for other people. The behavior of charity first is under the premise of respecting for citizens’ freedom and equal status and follows the concept of people-oriented. Only if we take citizens as the center to nurture the spirit of charity (i.e., citizens’ recognition and belief about the charity), it can meet needs of human society and realize the fundamental value of human beings. In the background of citizens having rational individual independence and freedom, we form a charity consensus that is a possible way to nurture the citizens’ spirit of charity and solve conflict issues. When rationally examining unselfish and altruistic acts of charity, we find the charity’s moral consensus rooted in the life way of people’s helping each other in society solidarity. Through the charity, people seek win-win situation for individuals and the society under the background of society solidarity, namely, saving others as if saving oneself is the consensus basis of nurturing citizens’ charitable spirit.The tea markets of Sichuan Province were divided into the origin, entrepot and consumer markets. The original markets of tea were widely distributed in Sichuan, but the main entrepot markets were Kangding and Songpan, which were called frontier tea. This paper will focus on trading of the western frontier tea and the southern frontier tea. Meanwhile, the author will also analyze the distribution of tea firms in this area.Starting from the perspective of cultural talent cultivation, this paper discusses the reason why the inheritance and innovation of culture become the fourth function of college education, the great value the college cultural construction possesses in talent cultivation, the restrictive elements of college talent cultivation from the perspective of culture, and also the leading role of college culture in college talent cultivation.The characteristics of pre-school children’s Chinese learning are: Being dominated by oral communication; instinctive acquisition; acceleration development of learning; learning in context and obviously student-centered learning.