Nori Minich

Improved Survival Rates With Increased Neurodevelopmental Disability for Extremely Low Birth Weight Infants in the 1990s

Background. Advances in perinatal care have resulted in increased survival rates for extremely low birth weight children. We sought to examine the relative changes in rates of survival and neurodevelopmental impairment at 20 months of corrected age among 500- to 999-g birth weight infants born at our perinatal center during 2 periods, before and after the introduction of surfactant therapy in 1990. Methods. Four hundred ninety-six infants with birth weights of 500 to 999 g were born at our perinatal center during period I (1982–1989) (mean body weight: 762 g; mean gestational age: 25.8 weeks) and 682 during period II (1990–1998) (mean body weight: 756 g; mean gestational age: 25.5 weeks). Rates of death and survival with and without neurodevelopmental impairment at 20 months of corrected age for the 2 periods were compared with logistic regression analyses, with adjustment for gestational age. Results. Survival rates increased from 49% during period I to 67% during period II. Neonatal morbidity rates also increased during period II, including rates of sepsis (from 37% to 51%), periventricular leukomalacia (from 2% to 7%), and chronic lung disease, defined as oxygen dependence at 36 weeks of corrected age (from 32% to 43%). Rates of severe cranial ultrasound abnormalities were similar (22% vs 22%). Among children monitored, the rate of neurologic abnormalities, including cerebral palsy, increased from 16% during period I to 25% during period II and the rate of deafness increased from 3% to 7%. The overall rate of neurodevelopmental impairment (major neurosensory abnormality and/or Bayley Mental Developmental Index score of <70) increased from 26% to 36%. Compared with period I, in period II there were decreased rates of death (odds ratio [OR]: 0.3; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.2–0.4) and increased rates of survival with impairment (OR: 2.3; 95% CI: 1.7–3.3) but also increased rates of survival without impairment (OR: 1.7; 95% CI: 1.3–2.2). Compared with period I, for every 100 infants with birth weights of 500 to 999 g born in period II, 18 additional infants survived, of whom 7 were unimpaired and 11 were impaired. Conclusions. The improved survival rates in the 1990s occurred with an increased risk of significant neurodevelopmental impairment. Prospective parents of extremely low birth weight infants should be advised of this substantial risk, to facilitate decision-making in the delivery room.

A Prospective Study of Short- and Long-Term Outcomes After Traumatic Brain Injury in Children: Behavior and Achievement

Longitudinal behavior and achievement outcomes of traumatic brain injury (TBI) were investigated in 53 children with severe TBI, 56 children with moderate TBI, and 80 children with orthopedic injuries not involving brain insult. Measures of preinjury child and family status and of postinjury achievement skills were administered shortly after injury. Assessments were repeated 3 times across a mean follow-up interval of 4 years. Results from mixed model analysis revealed persisting sequelae of TBI. Recovery of math skills was observed in the severe TBI group but only for children from less stressed families. Social disadvantage in children with TBI predicted more adverse behavioral sequelae and less favorable changes in some outcome measures. The findings suggest that pediatric TBI has long-term effects on behavior and achievement but that postinjury progress is influenced by the family environment.

Short- and long-term social outcomes following pediatric traumatic brain injury.

The social outcomes of pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) were examined in a prospective, longitudinal study that included 53 children with severe TBI, 56 with moderate TBI, and 80 with orthopedic injuries, recruited between 6 and 12 years of age. Child and family functioning were assessed at baseline, at 6- and 12-month follow-ups, and at an extended follow-up a mean of 4 years post injury. Growth curve analyses revealed that pediatric TBI yields negative social outcomes that are exacerbated by family environments characterized by lower socioeconomic status, fewer family resources, and poorer family functioning. After controlling for group membership, age, race, socioeconomic status, and IQ, path analyses indicated that long-term social outcomes were accounted for in part by specific neurocognitive skills, including executive functions and pragmatic language, and by social problem-solving. Deficits in these domains among children with TBI are likely to reflect damage to a network of brain regions that have been implicated in social cognition.

Middle-School-Age Outcomes in Children with Very Low Birthweight

Most previous studies of children with birthweight <750 g have focused on early childhood sequelae. To evaluate later outcomes, a regional sample of 60 <750-g birthweight children was compared at middle school age (M = 11 years) to 55 children with birthweight 750-1,499 g and 49 term controls. The groups were matched on age, gender, and demographic variables at the time of an early-school-age assessment (mean age 7 years). The <750-g birthweight group fared less well at middle school age than the term group on measures of cognitive function, achievement, behavior, and academic performance. In many instances, outcomes were less favorable for the <750-g children than for the 750 to 1,499-g group. Children in the <750-g group who were free of neurosensory disorders and global cognitive impairment performed more poorly on several tests than their term counterparts. Group differences in this subsample on tests of motor skills, math, and the ability to copy and recall a complex drawing remained significant even after controlling for IQ. Disparities between the <750-g and term groups increased with age for some measures. Despite favorable outcomes for many children in the <750-g group, this population is at risk for long-term developmental problems.

A prospective study of short- and long-term neuropsychological outcomes after traumatic brain injury in children

Longitudinal neuropsychological outcomes of traumatic brain injury (TBI) were investigated in 53 children with severe TBI, 56 children with moderate TBI, and 80 children with orthopedic injuries only. Neuropsychological functioning was assessed at baseline, at 6- and 12-month follow-ups, and at an extended follow-up (a mean of 4 years postinjury). Mixed model analyses revealed persistent neuropsychological sequelae of TBI that generally did not vary as a function of time postinjury. Some recovery occurred during the first year postinjury, but recovery reached a plateau after that time, and deficits were still apparent at the extended follow-up. Further recovery was uncommon after the first year postinjury. Family factors did not moderate neuropsychological outcomes, despite their demonstrated influence on behavior and academic achievement after childhood TBI.

Post-Concussive Symptoms in Children with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

To investigate postconcussive symptoms (PCS) following pediatric mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), 8- to 15-year-old children with mTBI (n = 186) and a comparison group with uncomplicated orthopedic injuries (OI, n = 99) were recruited from two emergency departments. Parent and child ratings of PCS and symptom counts were obtained within 3 weeks after injury (baseline) and at 1, 3, and 12 months postinjury. The mTBI group also completed magnetic resonance imaging at baseline. Group differences were examined using growth modeling, controlling for age at injury, sex, socioeconomic status, and (for parent-based measures) preinjury symptom levels. Relative to the OI group, the mTBI group had higher ratings of somatic PCS and parent counts of PCS at the initial assessments, but higher parent ratings of cognitive PCS and child counts of PCS throughout follow-up. Higher levels of PCS in the mTBI group were associated with motor-vehicle-related trauma, loss of consciousness, neuroimaging abnormalities, and hospitalization. The findings validate both transient and persistent PCS in children with mTBI and document associations of symptoms with injury and noninjury factors.

Long-term neuropsychological outcomes of very low birth weight: associations with early risks for periventricular brain insults.

Few follow-up studies of children with very low birth weight (VLBW, <1,500 g) have examined neuropsychological sequelae at later ages or neonatal risks as predictors of these outcomes. The present study assessed cognitive skills at mean age 16 years in 48 participants with <750 g birth weight, 47 with 750-1,499 g birth weight, and 52 term-born controls. Our major objectives were to delineate the long-term cognitive consequences of VLBW, and to determine if risks for periventricular brain insults accounted for variations in outcomes. Analysis revealed poorer outcomes for the <750 g group than for term-born controls on nearly all measures, with specific impairments in visual-motor skills, spatial memory, and executive function. Predictors of outcome for participants with VLBW included lower birth weight, lower weight for gestational age, and a longer period of oxygen requirement for chronic lung disease. The longer-term consequences of VLBW are consistent with expectations based on early brain pathology and suggest limitations to functional plasticity.

Pleiotropic Effects of a Chromosome 3 Locus on Speech-Sound Disorder and Reading

Speech-sound disorder (SSD) is a complex behavioral disorder characterized by speech-sound production errors associated with deficits in articulation, phonological processes, and cognitive linguistic processes. SSD is prevalent in childhood and is comorbid with disorders of language, spelling, and reading disability, or dyslexia. Previous research suggests that developmental problems in domains associated with speech and language acquisition place a child at risk for dyslexia. Recent genetic studies have identified several candidate regions for dyslexia, including one on chromosome 3 segregating in a large Finnish pedigree. To explore common genetic influences on SSD and reading, we examined linkage for several quantitative traits to markers in the pericentrometric region of chromosome 3 in 77 families ascertained through a child with SSD. The quantitative scores measured several processes underlying speech-sound production, including phonological memory, phonological representation, articulation, receptive and expressive vocabulary, and reading decoding and comprehension skills. Model-free linkage analysis was followed by identification of sib pairs with linkage and construction of core shared haplotypes. In our multipoint analyses, measures of phonological memory demonstrated the strongest linkage (marker D3S2465, P=5.6 x 10(-5), and marker D3S3716, P=6.8 x 10(-4)). Tests for single-word decoding also demonstrated linkage (real word reading: marker D3S2465, P=.004; nonsense word reading: marker D3S1595, P=.005). The minimum shared haplotype in sib pairs with similar trait values spans 4.9 cM and is bounded by markers D3S3049 and D3S3045. Our results suggest that domains common to SSD and dyslexia are pleiotropically influenced by a putative quantitative trait locus on chromosome 3.

A prospective study of long-term caregiver and family adaptation following brain injury in children.

Objective:We examined long-term differences in family adaptation following traumatic brain injuries (TBI) and orthopedic injuries. Design:Families of children with severe TBI (n = 53), moderate TBI (n = 56), and orthopedic injuries (n = 80) were assessed at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months post injury and at an extended follow-up an average of 4.1 years post injury. Caregiver and family outcomes were examined using mixed model analysis. Results:Patterns of adaptation over time varied across groups but indicated long-standing injury-related stress and burden in the severe TBI group. Conclusions:Severe TBI results in persistent caregiver stress for a substantial proportion of families.

Breastfeeding of very low birth weight infants.

This research examines the rate of breastfeeding among mothers of very low birth weight infants (VLBW, <1500 grams), and the correlates of breast milk pumping and transition to nursing at the breast. Eighty-two mothers and their 69 singleton and 21 twin VLBW infants admitted to the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (January 1-June 30, 1995) of an urban tertiary care hospital. Maternal demographic, infant birth, and neonatal data were compared according to breast or bottle feeding, and a telephone interview was administered retrospectively to mothers pumping breast milk at the time of the infants discharge home. Of 39 mothers who chose to pump breast milk, 19 were still pumping at the time of the infants discharge home. Only 8 made a successful transition to nursing at the breast. Mothers who continued pumping tended to be white, married, and older, and their infants had fewer neonatal complications. The rates of prolonged breast milk pumping and of nursing are very low. Specific interventions and better support might improve the success rates.