Norman Uphoff

A review of agricultural research issues raised by the system of rice intensification (SRI) from Madagascar: opportunities for improving farming systems for resource-poor farmers

Abstract The “system of rice intensification” (SRI) that evolved in the 1980s and 1990s in Madagascar permits resource-limited farmers to realise yields of up to 15 t of paddy/hectare on infertile soils, with greatly reduced rates of irrigation and without external inputs. This paper reviews the plant physiological and bio-ecological factors associated with agronomic practices that could explain the extraordinary yields in terms of synergies resulting from the judicious management of the major crop production factors: time, space, water, plant nutrients and labour. The findings underscore the importance of integrated and interdisciplinary research, combining strategic and adaptive (on-farm participatory) approaches that explore and link bio-physical and socio-economic factors in crop production. Such approaches would permit to unlock currently untapped production potentials of rice and other major cereal grain crops, without extra costs to farmers or to the environment.

Participation's place in rural development: seeking clarity through specificity

Abstract Over the past few years, development specialists have expressed increasing concern over the lack of progress in altering the plight of the rural poor. Towards this end they are shifting from the capital-investment growth models of the 1960s to the more people-centred basic- needs approaches that are increasingly dominating development thinking in the 1970s. In the process, they are turning to a number of related development strategies, one of the most important and least understood of which is ‘popular participation’. Increasing numbers of studies and activities are being undertaken to bolster government and donor capacity to promote participation in development programmes. Yet, with all these activities the disturbing fact is that there is little agreement on what participation is or on its basic dimensions. This article seeks to provide some order to the emergence of participatory concerns in the development literature, and to offer a carefully elaborated framework that clarifies the notion of ‘rural-development participation’ and make it applicable to total-development projects.

Biological Approaches to Sustainable Soil Systems

Overview Understanding the Functioning and Management of Soil Systems Norman Uphoff, Andrew S. Ball, Erick C.M. Fernandes, Hans Herren, Olivier Husson, Cheryl Palm, Jules Pretty, Nteranya Sanginga, Janice E. Thies Soil System Management in the Humid and Subhumid Tropics Ana Primavesi Soil System Management in Temperate Regions G. Philip Robertson, A. Stuart Grandy Soil System Management under Arid and Semi-Arid Conditions Richard J. Thomas, Hanadi El-Dessougi, Ashraf Tubeileh Soil Agents and Processes The Soil Habitat and Soil Ecology Thies, Julie M. Grossman Energy Inputs in Soil Systems Ball The Rhizosphere: Contributions of the Soil - Root Interface to Sustainable Soil Systems Volker Romheld, Gunter Neumann The Natural Rhizobium - Cereal Crop Association as an Example of Plant - Bacteria Interaction Frank B. Dazzo, Youssef G. Yanni The Roles of Arbuscular Mycorrihizas in Plant and Soil Health Mitiku Habte Moving Up within the Food Web: Protozoa and Nematodes Gregor W. Yeates, Tony Pattison Soil Fauna Impacts on Soil Physical Properties Elisee Oue draogo, Abdoulaye Mando, Lijbert Brussaard Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Agroecosystems and in Plant Roots Robert M. Boddey, Bruno J.R. Alves, Veronica M. Reis, Segundo Urquiaga Enhancing Phosphorus Availability in Low-Fertility Soils Benjamin L. Turner, Emmanuel Frossard, Astrid Oberson Phytohormones: Microbial Production and Applications Azeem Khalid, Muhammad Arshad, Zahir Ahmad Zahir Crop Genetic Responses to Management: Evidence of Root - Shoot Communication Autar K. Mattoo, Aref Abdul-Baki Allelopathy and Its Influence in Soil Systems Suzette R. Bezuidenhout, Mark Laing Animals as Part of Soil Systems Alice N. Pell Strategies and Methods Integrated Soil Fertility Management in Africa: From Knowledge to Implementation Bernard Vanlauwe, Joshua J. Ramisch, Nteranya Sanginga Managing Soil Fertility and Nutrient Cycles through Fertilizer Trees in Southern Africa Paramu L. Mafongoya, Elias Kuntashula, Gudeta Sileshi Biological Soil Fertility Management for Tree-Crop Agroforestry Gotz Schroth, Ulrike Krauss Restoring Productivity to Degraded Pasture Lands in the Amazon through Agroforestry Practices Fernandes, Elisa Wandelli, Rogerio Perin, Silas Garcia Direct-Seeded Tropical Soil Systems with Permanent Soil Cover: Learning from Brazilian Experience Lucien Seguy, Serge Bouzinac, Husson Restoration of Acid Soil Systems through Agroecological Management Husson, Seguy, Roger Michellon, Stephane Boulakia Conservation Agriculture and Its Applications in South Asia Peter Hobbs, Raj Gupta, Craig Meisner Managing Soil Fertility on Small Family Farms in African Drylands Michael Mortimore Restoring Soil Fertility in Semi-Arid West Africa: Assessment of an Indigenous Technology Mando, Dougbedji Fatondji, Robert Zougmore, Brussaard, Charles L. Bielders, Christopher Martius Leguminous Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Sustainable Tropical Agroecosystems Robert M. Boddey, Alves, Urquiaga Soil Biological Contributions to the System of Rice Intensification Robert Randriamiharisoa, Joeli Barison, Uphoff Contributions of Managed Fallows to Soil Fertility Recovery Erika Styger, Fernandes Green Manure/Cover Crops for Recuperating Soils and Maintaining Soil Fertility in the Tropics Roland Bunch Compost and Vermicompost as Amendments Promoting Soil Health Allison L.H. Jack, Thies Practical Applications of Bacterial Biofertilizers and Biostimulators Rafael Martinez Viera, Bernardo Dibut Alvarez Inoculation and Management of Mycorrhizal Fungi within Tropical Agroecosystems Ramon Rivera, Felix Fernandez Trichoderma: An Ally in the Quest for Soil System Sustainability Brendon Neumann, Laing Evaluation of Crop Production Systems Based on Locally Available Biological Inputs O.P. Rupela, C.L.L. Gowda, S.P. Wani, Hameeda Bee Bio-Char Soil Management on Highly Weathered Soils in the Humid Tropics Johannes Lehmann, Marco Rondon Improving Phosphorus Fertility in Tropical Soils through Biological Interventions Astrid Oberson, Else K. Bunemann, Dennis K. Friesen, Idupulapati M. Rao, Paul C. Smithson, Benjamin L. Turne, Emmanuel Frossard Profile Modification as a Means of Soil Improvement: Promoting Root Health through Deep Tillage Nico Labuschagne, Deon Joubert Rhizosphere Management as Part of Intercropping and Rice-Wheat Rotation Systems Liu Xuejun, Li Long, Zhang Fusuo Managing Polycropping to Enhance Soil System Productivity: A Case Study from Africa Zeyaur Khan, Ahmed Hassanali, John Pickett Related Issues Effects of Soil and Plant Management on Crop Pests and Diseases Alain Ratnadass, Michellon, Richard Randriamanantsoa, Seguy Revegetating Inert Soils with the Use of Microbes Gail Papli, Laing Impacts of Climate on Soil Systems and of Soil Systems on Climate Rattan Lal Economic and Policy Contexts for the Biological Management of Soil Fertility Sara J. Scherr Village-Level Production and Use of Biocontrol Agents and Biofertilizers B. Selvamukilan, R. Rengalakshmi, P. Tamizoli, Sudha Nair Measuring and Assessing Soil Biological Properties Thies Approaches to Monitoring Soil Systems David Wolfe Modeling Possibilities for the Assessment of Soil Systems Ball, Diego De la Rosa Opportunities for Overcoming Productivity Constraints with Biologically-Based Approaches Uphoff Issues for More Sustainable Soil System Management Uphoff, Ball, Fernandes, Herren, Husson, Palm, Pretty, Sanginga, Thies

Demonstrated Benefits from Social Capital: The Productivity of Farmer Organizations in Gal Oya, Sri Lanka

An analytical construct of social capital is presented, followed by a case study from Sri Lanka. There, farmer organizations were established in the Gal Oya irrigation scheme in the early 1980s with a combination of roles, rules, norms and values that supported mutually beneficial collective action. This produced measurable improvements in system performance and efficiency. In the 1997 dry season, after farmers were told there was not enough water in the reservoir to grow a rice crop, they achieved through their organizations a better-than-average harvest from 65,000 acres by efficient and equitable distribution. Ethnic cooperation was demonstrated by upstream Sinhalese farmers sharing water with downstream Tamil farmers.

Grassroots organizations and NGOs in rural development: Opportunities with diminishing states and expanding markets

Abstract This article undertakes to deal systematically with nongovernment organizations (NGOs) and grassroots organizations (GROs), usually treated as a residual category. Ten levels for development decision making and action are identified in the tradition of central place theory. Three of these are considered ″local″ or ″grassroots″ because of their collective action possibilities. Then, three sectors are delineated, instead of the usual two. NGOs are part of the collective action sector which differs from the public and private sectors in theoretically consistent ways. A careful distinction is made between institutions and organizations, usually conflated in the literature. Examples of accelerated rural development through grassroots organizations and NGOs are discussed form Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

Higher Yields with Fewer External Inputs? The System of Rice Intensification and Potential Contributions to Agricultural Sustainability

Although sustainable agriculture is not limited to production systems that use few or no purchased inputs, systems that are less dependent on external inputs have better prospects for sustainability—as long as they can meet the needs of producers and consumers as well as do conventional systems depending heavily on fossil fuel and other capital-intensive inputs. The system of rice intensification (SRI) developed in Madagascar can raise irrigated rice yields to about double the present world average without relying on external inputs, also offering environmental and equity benefits. SRI methods change they way plants, soil, water and nutrients are managed—rather than utilising new-variety seeds, inorganic fertilisers or other agrochemicals. SRI also reduces the need for irrigation water by about half and diminishes the requirements for capital and seed. SRI requires more knowledge and skill on the part of farmers and initially more labour per hectare. But greater labour intensity is compensated by farmers achieving higher returns for labour, and SRI can become labour-saving. SRI should make irrigated rice production more sustainable, as well as profitable. SRI experience may reveal other opportunities that can make agricultural systems more productive and beneficial for the long term.

Opportunities for water saving with higher yield from the system of rice intensification

The system of rice intensification (SRI) developed in Madagascar, is showing that by changing the management of rice plants, soil, water and nutrients it can increase the yields of irrigated rice by 25–50% or more while reducing water requirements by an equivalent percent. This gives farmers incentive to reduce their irrigation water use when growing rice, especially since SRI methods can also reduce farmers’ costs of production which increases their net income ha−1 by even more than yield. Even though these results sound fantastic, the validity of SRI concepts and practices has been demonstrated in more than 20 countries to date. This article considers, first, the methods that make these improvements possible and how these are achieved. It then briefly surveys SRI experience in five Asian countries, incentives in addition to yield, water-saving and profitability for adopting SRI, and possible limitations or disadvantages with the methodology. Next, it comments on the debate over SRI in the agronomic literature and then adds to the empirical record by reporting in some detail on SRI evaluations in two of India’s main rice-growing states, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, where water availability is becoming more problematic and where SRI use is spreading. Finally, the article briefly discusses some implications of saving irrigation water by changing resource management rather than by using on more or different inputs.

The political economy of change

The authors approach political economy analysis starting with the discipline of political science. They resurrect concerns that occupied early political economists: first, determining how the relationship between those in authority and those subject to it can be made most productive for the community; and second, ascertaining what courses a government can follow to see that the resources of a community are used most economically and effectively to achieve the goals it sets. Ilchman and Uphoff expand the limits of social science analysis to deal with problems of allocation and productivity in all spheres of public choice, not just the economic sphere. In their new introduction, Ilchman and Uphoff discuss the significance of their model, proposing that it can be used in any and all political and systems. The model is discussed as supra disciplinary, in that it transcends disciplines rather than trying to combine or unite them. The Political Economy of Change is, in the words of Kenneth Boulding, an important landmark in the development of an integrated social science. It has been widely valued by political scientists, economists, and sociologists working in developmental contexts.

AN ASSESSMENT OF PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION (SRI) PRACTICES COMPARED WITH RECOMMENDED RICE CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN INDIA

An evaluation was conducted in eastern India over three years, 2005–2007, to compare the performance of certain System of Rice Intensification (SRI) practices: transplanting single, young (10-day-old) seedlings in a square pattern; no continuous flooding; and use of a mechanical weeder – with those currently endorsed by the Central Rice Research Institute of India, referred to here as recommended management practices (RMP). All plots received the same fertilization, a combination of organic and inorganic nutrients, and the SRI spacing used was 20% less than usually recommended. Accordingly, the results reported here are designated as a modification of SRI recommendations (SRI m ). The objective of this research was to understand the benefits in terms of yield and other physiological parameters, if any, from using most if not all recommended SRI practices compared to RMP. These selected SRI practices out-yielded RMP by 42%, with the higher yield associated with various phenotypical alterations, which are reported here. Significant measurable changes were observed in physiological processes and plant characteristics, such as longer panicles, more grains panicle −1 and higher % of grain-filling. The decreased plant density with SRI m management was compensated for by increased per-plant productivity. SRI m hills with single plants were found to have deeper and better-distributed root systems, higher xylem exudation rates, more open plant architecture with more erect and larger leaves, and more tillers than did RMP hills having multiple plants. Due to the reduction in number of hills m −2 in SRI m plots compared to RMP, no significant difference was found in root dry weight or leaf number, tillers or panicle number on an area basis. Nevertheless, in spite of SRI m having fewer hills and fewer tillers per unit area, the leaf area index (LAI) with SRI m practice was greater due to larger leaves. These together with altered plant architecture, contributed to more light interception by SRI m plants. The higher leaf chlorophyll content at ripening stage reflected delayed senescence and the greater fluorescence efficiency (Fv/Fm and ФPS II) associated with SRI m practices contributed to more efficient utilization of light and a higher rate of photosynthesis, which was probably responsible for the observed increase in grain filling and heavier grains compared to RMP plants. The higher photosynthesis rate coupled with lower transpiration in SRI m plants indicated that they were using water more efficiently than did RMP plants. The latter produced 1.6 μ mol CO 2 fixed per m mol water transpired, compared to 3.6 μ mol CO 2 in SRI m plants.

INFLUENCE OF THE SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION ON RICE YIELD AND NITROGEN AND WATER USE EFFICIENCY WITH DIFFERENT N APPLICATION RATES

SUMMARY Field experiments were conducted in 2005 and 2006 to investigate the impacts of alternative rice cultivation systems on grain yield, water productivity, N uptake and N use efficiency (ANUE, agronomic N use efficiency; PFP, partial factor productivity of applied N). The trials compared the practices used with the system of rice intensification (SRI) and traditional flooding (TF). The effects of different N application rates (0, 80, 160 and 240 kg ha−1) and of N rates interacting with the cultivation system were also evaluated. Resulting grain yields with SRI ranged from 5.6 to 7.3 t ha−1, and from 4.1 to 6.4 t ha−1 under TF management. On average, grain yields under SRI were 21% higher in 2005 and 22% higher in 2006 than with TF. Compared with TF, SRI plots had higher harvest index across four fertilizer N rates in both years. However, there was no significance difference in above-ground biomass between two cultivation systems in either year. ANUE was increased significantly under SRI at 80 kg N ha −1 compared with TF, while at higher N application rates, ANUE with SRI was significantly lower than TF. Compared with TF, PFP under SRI was higher across all four N rates in both years, although the difference at 240 kg N ha −1 was not significant. As N rate increased, the ANUE and PFP under both SRI and TF significantly decreased. Reduction in irrigation water use with SRI was 40% in 2005 and 47% in 2006, and water use efficiency, both total and from irrigation, were significantly increased compared to TF. With both SRI and TF, the highest N application was associated with decreases in grain yield, N use efficiency and water use efficiency. This is an important finding given current debates whether N application rates in China are above the optimum, especially considering consequences for soil and water resources. Cultivation system, N rates and their interactions all produced significant differences in this study. Results confirmed that optimizing fertilizer N application rates under SRI is important to increase yield, N use efficiency and water use efficiency.