O. A. Elkina

Inhomogeneities of the interface produced by explosive welding

Results of studying structure of the transition zone for a number of joints produced by explosive welding are presented. The joints of dissimilar metals (titanium-orthorhombic titanium aluminide, coppertantalum, and others) have been investigated. The welded pairs of metals differ from each other in mutual solubility; moreover, some pairs (copper-tantalum) virtually lack it. The interface was found to be uneven; it contains inhomogeneities, irrespective of whether it is flat or wavy. It is shown that the formation of interfacial protrusions determines the adhesion of materials. A granulating fragmentation has been found near the protrusions. The role of various processes in explosive welding has been discussed. The formation of protrusions does not depend on whether the metals of a pair have mutual solubility or not. However, this factor affects the structure of zones of local melting. The metals that have mutual solubility form true solutions; in the absence of solubility, these zones represent colloidal solutions. It is shown that sometimes the local melting zones do not present a real danger for the strength of the joint. A hypothesis is proposed that the formation of a wavy surface is possible through the self-organization of the previously formed protrusions.

Formation of vortices during explosion welding (titanium-orthorhombic titanium aluminide)

The possibility of cladding commercially pure titanium by a plate of orthorhombic titanium aluminide has been investigated. The bimetallic joints of orthorhombic titanium aluminide (Ti-30Al-16Nb-1Zr-1Mo) with commercially pure titanium have been obtained by explosion welding. It has been found that the weld joint investigated had a multilayer structure consisting of a zone of continuous deformation observed in both materials, a zone of titanium recrystallization, and a transition zone near the interface. Wave formation and formation of isolated vortex zones have been observed. It has been found that upon explosion welding the bonding of the surfaces is effected via melting and subsequent mixing (in the zone of vortices) and the transfer of particles of one metal into another with the formation of particle tracks (outside the zone of vortices). A possible scenario of the formation of the vortex zone in the melt with a subsequent eutectic decomposition is proposed. The structure of the vortex zones was found to consist of an ultrafine mixture of α and β grains (both phases are disordered) with the grain size changing in the limits of 50–300 nm. The regions of transition from the vortex zone to the region of continuous deformation of the aluminide and to the recrystallized zone of titanium have been investigated.

Effect of quenching temperature on structure and properties of titanium alloy: Structure and phase composition

X-ray diffraction analysis and transmission and scanning electron microscopy have been used to study regularities of the formation of structure and phase composition of a VT16 alloy during its quenching. The formation of an athermal ω phase in the VT16 alloy with the initial (α + β) structure during quenching of the alloy from 800°C was found to be possible. Quenching temperatures (Tq) at which various metastable phase compositions, such as the metastable β solid solution, β + α″ + ω, β + α″, and α″ martensite, are formed have been determined to be 750, 800, 750–850, and ≤850°C, respectively. Dependences of variations in the volume fractions of phases were plotted. It has been shown that, at quenching temperatures close to the β-transus, the active growth of β-phase grains takes place at the expense of a decrease in the α-phase volume fraction.

Effect of rolling-assisted deformation on the formation of an ultrafine-grained structure in a two-phase titanium alloy subjected to severe plastic deformation

The effect of rolling in the temperature range 450–650°C on the fragmentation of the primary phase in a hot-rolled VT6 alloy rod preliminarily subjected to severe plastic deformation by equal-channel angular pressing at 700°C (scheme Bc, the angle between the channels is 135°, 12 passes) is studied. Rolling at 450°C without preliminary ECAP is shown not to cause α-phase fragmentation and to favor intense cold working of the alloy due to multiple slip. ECAP provides partial fragmentation of the initial structure of the α phase and changes the morphology of the retained β phase: it transforms from a continuous matrix phase into separated precipitates located between α particles. This transformation activates the fragmentation of the α phase during rolling at 550°C owing to the development of twinning and polygonization processes apart from multiple slip. Both a decrease (to 450°C) and an increase (to 625–650°C) in the rolling temperature as compared to 550°C lead to the formation of a less homogeneous and fragmented structure because of weakly developed recovery and intense cold working in the former case and because of the beginning of recrystallization and the suppression of twinning in the latter case. A relation between the structure that forms upon SPD followed by rolling and the set of its properties is found. A general scheme is proposed for the structural transformations that occur during ECAP followed by rolling at various temperatures.

Phase and structural transformations in the alloy on the basis of the orthorhombic titanium aluminide

Phase and structural transformations in the Ti-24.3 Al-24.8 Nb-1.0 Zr-1.4 V-0.6 Mo-0.3 Si (at %) alloy that take place during heating in the temperature range of 700–1050°C have been investigated. The temperature ranges of existence of the O + β, O + β + α2, β + α2, and β phase fields have been established. A scheme of the relationships between the volume fractions of the O, β, and α2 phases depending on the temperature of heating of the alloy have been investigated. The formation of an ordered incommensurate ω (Vω) phase has been revealed in the alloy during quenching from 900°C. The existence of a correlation between the hardness properties and changes in the phase composition and morphology of particles precipitating in the alloy has been shown.

Effect of heat treatment and plastic deformation on the structure and elastic modulus of a biocompatible alloy based on zirconium and titanium

Transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis have been used to study the phase composition and structure of an IMP-BAZALM (Zr-31Ti-18Nb (at %)) biocompatible medical alloy depending on the heat-treatment conditions. An interrelation between the values of the electron concentration of phases normalized to the volume (e/anorm = e/aalloy(νβ/νphase)) and the phase composition of the alloy has been found to exist. It has been established that the appearance of the α″ and ω phases in the structure of the alloy leads to an increase in the modulus of elasticity. The greatest increase in the modulus is observed under the conditions corresponding to the formation of the ω phase.

Electron-microscopic examination of the transition zone of aluminum-tantalum bimetallic joints (explosion welding)

A study of the structure of an aluminum-tantalum joint and a comparison of this structure with the structures of iron-silver and copper-tantalum joints have revealed the following processes of the interpenetration of the materials that occur during explosion welding: the formation of protrusions, the injection of particles of one material into the other, and the formation of zones of local melting. Regardless of the mutual solubility of the metals being welded, two types of fragmentation occur, i.e., (1) a granulating fragmentation (GF), which includes the formation, explosion-governed (EG) dispersion, and partial consolidation of particles, and (2) the fragmentation that is usually observed during severe plastic deformation. It is important that this traditional fragmentation is not accompanied by the formation and EG dispersion of particles. This feature allows one to easily distinguish these types of fragmentation (traditional and GF fragmentation).

Fragmentation processes during explosion welding (review)

The fragmentation during explosion welding is briefly reviewed. Fragmentation of partitioning type (FPT), which consists in partitioning into particles that either fly away or join each other, is detected. FPT is an analog of the fragmentation during an explosion that was studied by Mott. In both cases, the flight of particles (fragments) takes place, and the integrity of the material is retained in FPT. FPT is a powerful channel for the dissipation of supplied energy, since the surface of flying particles has a large total area.

Explosive welding: Mixing of metals without mutual solubility (iron-silver)

The results obtained for joints of dissimilar metals, iron-silver (earlier, copper-tantalum), which form immiscible liquid suspensions, explain why they are mixed in explosive welding. Inhomogeneities of the wavy interface, such as protrusions and zones of localized melting, were observed. The effect of granulating fragmentation, which is responsible for crushing initial materials into particles, was understood as one of the most efficient ways to dissipate the supplied energy. It is shown that, in the case of joints of metals without mutual solubility, zones of localized melting represent colloidal solutions, which form either emulsions or suspensions. At solidification, the emulsion represents a hazard for joint stability due to possible separation; on the contrary, suspension can enable the dispersion strengthening of the joint. The results can be used in the development of new metal joints without mutual solubility.

Structure of the welding zone between titanium and orthorhombic titanium aluminide for explosion welding: II. Local melting zones

The structure and chemical composition of the local melting zones that form during explosion welding of orthorhombic titanium aluminide with commercial-purity titanium near a wavy interface between them are studied. The Rayleigh number is estimated to propose a possible mechanism for the formation of a concentric structure in these zones. Titanium aluminide fragments are detected near the zone boundaries. It is assumed that the fragmentation in the transition zone is caused by the division of a material into loosely coupled microvolumes under the action of a strong external action in a time comparable with the explosion time. Outside the transition zone, fragmentation occurs via a traditional way beginning from dislocation accumulation. Both processes occur in titanium aluminide and only one process (banded structure formation) takes place in titanium.