O. A. Makarov

Specific Features of the Ecological Functioning of Urban Soils in Moscow and Moscow Oblast

Urban soils (constructozems) were studied in Moscow and several cities (Dubna, Pushchino, and Serebryanye Prudy) of Moscow oblast. The soil sampling from the upper 10-cm-thick layer was performed in the industrial, residential, and recreational functional zones of these cities. The biological (the carbon of the microbial biomass carbon, Cmic and the microbial (basal) respiration, BR) and chemical (pHwater and the contents of Corg, heavy metals, and NPK) indices were determined in the samples. The ratios of BR to Cmic (the microbial respiration quotient, qCO2) and of Cmic to Corg were calculated. The Cmic varied from 120 to 738 μg C/g soil; the BR, from 0.39 to 1.94 μg CO2-C/g soil per hour; the Corg, from 2.52 to 5.67%; the qCO2, from 1.24 to 5.28 μg CO2-C/mg Cmic/g soil per h; and the Cmic/Corg, from 0.40 to 1.55%. Reliable positive correlations were found between the Cmic and BR, the Cmic and Cmic/Corg, and the Cmic and Corg values (r = 0.75, 0.95, and 0.61, respectively), as well as between the BR and Cmic/Corg values (r = 0.68). The correlation between the Cmic/Corg and qCO2 values was negative (r = −0.70). The values of Cmic, BR, Corg, and Cmic/Corg were found to correlate with the ammonium nitrogen content. No correlative relationships were revealed between the determined indices and the climatic characteristics. The principal component analysis described 86% of the variances for all the experimental data and clearly subdivided the locations of the studied soil objects. The ANOVA showed that the variances of Cmic, Corg, and BR are controlled by the site location factor by 66, 63, and 35%, respectively. The specificity of the functioning of the anthropogenic soils as compared with their natural analogues was clearly demonstrated. As shown in this study, measurable biological indices might be applied to characterize the ecological, environmental-regulating, and productive functions of soils, including urban soils.

Spatial variability in the carbon of microbial biomass and microbial respiration in soils of the south of Moscow oblast

Soil samples from the upper 10-cm-thick layer of the humus horizon (without forest litter) were taken in Podol’sk and Serpukhov districts (1130 and 1080 km2, respectively) of Moscow oblast. At each sampling site, ecosystem (forest, plowland, or fallow), soil (soddy-podzolic, soddy-gley, bog-podzolic, meadow alluvial, gray forest, and anthropogenically transformed soils of lawns and industrial zones), predominant vegetation, and topography (floodplain and low, medium, and upper parts of watersheds) were determined. The carbon content of the microbial biomass (Cmic) was determined by the method of substrate-induced respiration; we also determined the rate of basal (microbial) respiration (BR) and the organic carbon content, pH, and particle-size distribution. Overall, 237 samples from Serpukhov district and 45 samples from Podol’sk district were analyzed. The BR/Cmic ratios (respiration quotient qCO2) and Cmic/Corg ratios were calculated. The Cmic content in the soils ranged from 43 to 1394 μg C/kg; the BR varied from 0.06 to 25 μg CO2-C/g per h, qCO2, from 0.34 to 6.52 μg CO2-C/mg Cmic per h; and the Cmic/Corg ratio, from 0.19 to 10.65%. It was found that the most significant factors affecting the variability of the Cmic and BR are the parameters of ecosystem (50% and 80%, respectively) and soil (30% and 9%, respectively). The most significant variability of these indices was found in forest soils; it was mainly controlled by the soil texture (33 and 23%) and the Corg content (19 and 24%). The Cmic parameter made it possible to differentiate the soils of the territory for the purposes of their evaluation, monitoring, and biological assessment more clearly than the BR value and the soil chemical characteristics.

The development of approaches to assess the soil organic carbon pools in megapolises and small settlements

An approach to assess the soil organic carbon (SOC) pools in megapolises and in small settlements with due account for the natural, economic, and historical heterogeneity of urban territories; the degree of the soil sealing; and the specific features of their functional use is discussed. Cartographic information, satellite imagery, geoinformation systems, and field and literature data have been applied to adapt this approach for Moscow and for the town of Serebryanye Prudy in Moscow oblast. The pool of SOC has been calculated for the topsoil horizons (0–10 cm) and for the total thickness of the cultural layer (habitation deposits) in these urban areas. The total SOC pool comprises 13 833.0 × 103 t (with an error of 30–40%) for Moscow and 2 996.6 × 103 t (with an error of 50–70%) for Serebryanye Prudy. The specific carbon pools for these territories reach 128 and 810 t/ha, respectively. The cultural layer of Moscow concentrates about 75% of the total SOC pool; in Serebryanye Prudy, it contains about 95% of the total SOC pool. The SOC pools in the urban soils are comparable with or exceed the SOC pools in the corresponding natural zonal soils.

National approaches to evaluation of the degree of soil degradation

Approaches to evaluation of the degree of soil degradation and the related normative documents applied by specialists from state institutes for land management of the former Soviet Union in the course of largeand medium-scale soil surveys in the 1960s–1990s are analyzed. It is shown that the types and rates of soil degradation were specified without proper consideration for the taxonomic position of particular soils. Reference (nondegraded) soils were not clearly defined, which made it difficult to judge the degree of soil degradation by means of a comparative analysis of degraded and nondegraded soils. Such reference soils are suggested for several types of soil degradation (dehumification, compaction, depletion of nutrients, etc.). Additional diagnostic criteria of the degree of soil degradation caused by wind and water erosion, waterlogging, swamping, and other adverse processes are specified. The study of qualitative and quantitative changes in the soil properties during the post-Soviet period is important for the development of land monitoring system and for the analysis of economic aspects of land degradation. To ensure reliability of data on changes in the soil properties and soil cover patterns, possible errors related to incorrect comparison of the data obtained by traditional and modern approaches should be taken into account.

Assessment of soil quality in different ecosystems (with soils of Podolsk and Serpukhov districts of Moscow oblast as examples)

The values of the soil-ecological index and microbiological parameters (the carbon of microbial biomass Cmic, its ratio to the total organic carbon Cmic/Corg, and basal respiration) were determined for the soddy-podzolic, soddy-gley, bog-podzolic, meadow alluvial, and gray forest soils under different land uses (forest, fallow, cropland, and urban areas) in the Podolsk and Serpukhov districts of Moscow oblast (237 and 45 sampling points, respectively). The soil sampling from the upper 10 cm (without the litter horizon) was performed in September and October. To calculate the soil-ecological index, both soil (physicochemical and agrochemical) and climatic characteristics were taken into account. Its values for fallow, cropland, and urban ecosystems averaged 70.2, 72.8, and 64.2 points (n = 90, 17, and 24, respectively). For the soils of forest ecosystems, the average value of the soil-ecological index was lower (54.4; n = 151). At the same time, the micro-biological characteristics of the studied forest soils were generally higher than those in the soils of fallow, cropland, and urban ecosystems. In this context, to estimate the soil quality in different ecosystems on the basis of the soil-ecological index, the use of a correction coefficient for the biological properties of the soils (the Cmic content) was suggested. The ecological substantiation of this approach for assessing the quality of soils in different ecosystems is presented in the paper.

Cadastral valuation of lands polluted with radionuclides

The major method to correct the cadastral value of land for contamination with radionuclides is to reduce it by the sum of expenses necessary for land remediation and for special measures ensuring the obtaining of agricultural and forestry products satisfying safety norms. Lands contaminated with radionuclides and used in agriculture and forestry are often removed from the system of land taxation. In this case, their cadastral value becomes an excessive element of the state cadaster of real estate. An approach toward cadastral valuation of such lands suggested by the authors assumes the creation of a system of compensation payments as the main source of financing of land rehabilitation and soil conservation measures. An original system of calculation of such payments has been tested for radioactively contaminated lands in Plavsk district of Tula oblast. It is argued that compensation payments for radioactively contaminated agrocenoses should be higher than those for natural cenoses.

Approaches to assessing the risk of chemical contamination of Urban Soils

The existing approaches to studying the risk of chemical contamination of soils are analyzed. It is noted that the actual and critical loads of contaminants on the soil cover are often compared for estimating these risks. The insufficient use of economic tools and methods for assessing the risk of soil contamination is emphasized. The sanitary-hygienic standards are found out to be exceeded for lead, zinc, cadmium and copper content in soils in six localities, each of 6250 m2 in the area, situated in the industrial and transport zones of Podol’sk and Moscow. The values of actual and maximal permissible damage exerted by the heavy-metal contamination to the studied soils are calculated. The probable damage R and the degree of probable damage implementation (DPDI) are used as the indices of soil contamination risk.

On inclusion of ecosystem services in the assessment of damage from land degradation

In the assessment of damage arising from land degradation at the Training and Experimental Soil–Ecological Center of Moscow State University, the cost of unfulfilled and underfulfilled ecosystem surfaces of soils should be taken into account. The following soil services were considered for the territory studied: direct provision with resources, protection, maintenance of ecosystem life and cultural services. A relationship between the concepts of ecosystem services and ecological functions of soils is shown. The concept of function is wider in some respect than the concept associated with it. In the definition of ecosystem service, only the manifestation of the soil function, which can have an economic interpretation, is selected. A simulation of ecosystem services proposed in the ecological and economic evaluation of damage arising from land degradation can be a real mechanism of nature conservation and development of systems of sustainable management at various levels of the administrative structure of the country.

Regulatory and Legislative Aspects of the Ecological Evaluation and Control of Soil Degradation in Russia on the Basis of the Assessment of Soil Ecological Functions

On the basis of legislative norms concerning land and nature management in Russia and scientific concepts of soil and land, new definitions of these basic concepts are suggested. Soils and lands are considered as separate components of the environment, each performing their own ecological functions. The definitions for land degradation and soil degradation are given. It is argued that the indicators of the ecological functions of soils and lands can be used for the qualitative and quantitative assessment of soil and land resources, ecological norming, and control of their ecological state, including degradation processes.