O. Araromi

High-Resolution, Large-Area Fabrication of Compliant Electrodes via Laser Ablation for Robust, Stretchable Dielectric Elastomer Actuators and Sensors

A key element in stretchable actuators, sensors, and systems based on elastomer materials are compliant electrodes. While there exist many methodologies for fabricating electrodes on dielectric elastomers, very few succeed in achieving high-resolution patterning over large areas. We present a novel approach for the production of mechanically robust, high-resolution compliant electrodes for stretchable silicone elastomer actuators and sensors. Cast, 2-50 μm thick poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS)-carbon composite layers are patterned by laser ablation and subsequently bonded to a PDMS membrane by oxygen plasma activation. The technique affords great design flexibility and high resolution and readily scales to large-area arrays of devices. We validate our methodology by producing arrays of actuators and sensors on up to A4-size substrates, reporting on microscale dielectric elastomer actuators (DEA) generating area strains of over 25%, and interdigitated capacitive touch sensors with high sensitivity yet insensitivity to substrate stretching. We demonstrate the ability to cofabricate highly integrated multifunctional transducers using the same process flow, showing the methodologys promise in realizing sophisticated and reliable complex stretchable devices with fine features over large areas.

Fabrication process of silicone-based dielectric elastomer actuators

This contribution demonstrates the fabrication process of dielectric elastomer transducers (DETs). DETs are stretchable capacitors consisting of an elastomeric dielectric membrane sandwiched between two compliant electrodes. The large actuation strains of these transducers when used as actuators (over 300% area strain) and their soft and compliant nature has been exploited for a wide range of applications, including electrically tunable optics, haptic feedback devices, wave-energy harvesting, deformable cell-culture devices, compliant grippers, and propulsion of a bio-inspired fish-like airship. In most cases, DETs are made with a commercial proprietary acrylic elastomer and with hand-applied electrodes of carbon powder or carbon grease. This combination leads to non-reproducible and slow actuators exhibiting viscoelastic creep and a short lifetime. We present here a complete process flow for the reproducible fabrication of DETs based on thin elastomeric silicone films, including casting of thin silicone membranes, membrane release and prestretching, patterning of robust compliant electrodes, assembly and testing. The membranes are cast on flexible polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrates coated with a water-soluble sacrificial layer for ease of release. The electrodes consist of carbon black particles dispersed into a silicone matrix and patterned using a stamping technique, which leads to precisely-defined compliant electrodes that present a high adhesion to the dielectric membrane on which they are applied.

Model and design of dielectric elastomer minimum energy structures

Fixing a prestretched dielectric elastomer actuator (DEA) on a flexible frame allows transformation of the intrinsic in-plane area expansion of DEAs into complex three-dimensional (3D) structures whose shape is determined by a configuration that minimizes the elastic energy of the actuator and the bending energy of the frame. These stuctures can then unfold upon the application of a voltage. This article presents an analytical modelling of the dielectric elastomer minimal energy structure in the case of a simple rectangular geometry and studies the influence of the main design parameters on the actuatorʼs behaviour. The initial shape of DEMES, as well as the actuation range, depends on the elastic strain energy stored in the elastomeric membrane. This energy depends on two independent parameters: the volume of the membrane and its initial deformation. There exist therefore different combinations of membrane volume and prestretch, which lead to the same initial shape, such as a highly prestretched thin membrane, or a slightly prestretched thick membrane. Although they have the same initial shape, these different membrane states lead to different behaviour once the actuation voltage is applied. Our model allows one to predict which choice of parameters leads to the largest actuation range, while specifying the impact of the different membrane conditions on the spring constant of the device. We also explore the effects of non-ideal material behaviour, such as stress relaxation, on device performance.

Tunable millimeter-wave phase shifter based on dielectric elastomer actuation

A very low-loss tunable millimeter-wave phase shifter driven by dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) is presented. The device consists of a fixed coplanar waveguide (CPW) and two metallic loading strips suspended on an elastomer membrane. The horizontal offset between the CPW and the strips is dynamically controlled by integrated DEAs. The variable interaction between the CPW and the loading strips results in a change in the effective permittivity, thereby providing analog-controlled true-time-delay. The design, fabrication, and measurements of this phase shifter based on DEAs are presented, demonstrating state-of-the-art phase shift to loss performance, achieving 235°/dB at 35 GHz.

A tunable millimeter-wave phase shifter driven by dielectric elastomer actuators

We present the successful operation of the first dielectric elastomer actuator (DEA) driven tunable millimeter-wave phase shifter. The development of dynamically reconfigurable microwave/millimeter-wave (MW/MMW) antenna devices is becoming a prime need in the field of telecommunications and sensing. The real time updating of antenna characteristics such as coverage or operation frequency is particularly desired. However, in many circumstances currently available technologies suffer from high EM losses, increased complexity and cost. Conversely, reconfigurable devices based on DEAs offer low complexity, low electromagnetic (EM) losses and analogue operation. Our tunable phase shifter consists of metallic strips suspended a fixed distance above a coplanar waveguide (CPW) by planar DEAs. The planar actuators displace the metallic strips (10 mm in length) in-plane by 500 μm, modifying the EM field distribution, resulting in the desired phase shift. The demanding spacing (50 ±5 μm between CPW and metallic strips) and parallel alignment criteria required for optimal device operation are successfully met in our device design and validated using bespoke methods. Our current device, approximately 60 mm x 60 mm in planar dimensions, meets the displacement requirements and we observe a considerable phase shift (~95° at 25 GHz) closely matching numerical simulations. Moreover, our device achieves state of the art performance in terms of phase shift per EM loss ~235°/dB (35 GHz), significantly out performing other phase shifter technologies, such as MMIC phase shifters.

Towards a deployable satellite gripper based on multisegment dielectric elastomer minimum energy structures

Dielectric Elastomer Actuators (DEAs) are an emerging actuation technology which are inherent lightweight and compliant in nature, enabling the development of unique and versatile devices, such as the Dielectric Elastomer Minimum Energy Structure (DEMES). We present the development of a multisegment DEMES actuator for use in a deployable microsatellite gripper. The satellite, called CleanSpace One, will demonstrate active debris removal (ADR) in space using a small cost effective system. The inherent flexibility and lightweight nature of the DEMES actuator enables space efficient storage (e.g. in a rolled configuration) of the gripper prior to deployment. Multisegment DEMES have multiple open sections and are an effective way of amplifying bending deformation. We present the evolution of our DEMES actuator design from initial concepts up until the final design, describing briefly the trade-offs associated with each method. We describe the optimization of our chosen design concept and characterize this design in terms on bending angle as a function of input voltage and gripping force. Prior to the characterization the actuator was stored and subsequently deployed from a rolled state, a capability made possible thanks to the fabrication methodology and materials used. A tip angle change of approximately 60° and a gripping force of 0.8 mN (for small deflections from the actuator tip) were achieved. The prototype actuators (approximately 10 cm in length) weigh a maximum of 0.65 g and are robust and mechanically resilient, demonstrating over 80,000 activation cycles.

A finite element approach for modelling multilayer unimorph dielectric elastomer actuators with inhomogeneous layer geometry

In this paper we present a finite element (FE) approach for modelling the performance of multilayer unimorph dielectric elastomer actuators (MUDEAs) with inhomogeneous layer geometry. MUDEAs are made up of a dielectric elastomer actuator (DEA) stack bonded to a flexible substrate and are capable of large out-of-plane displacements and resonant operation. MUDEAs are useful for many applications such as steerable endoscopes for minimally invasive surgery procedures, where high manoeuvrability and mechanical flexibility are required. Models of MUDEAs are useful for feasibility assessment and actuator design optimisation. The current analytical models of unimorph DEAs are inadequate for more unconventional unimorph configurations with multiple layers. The FE approach presented is capable of efficiently modelling MUDEAs with non-uniform geometries and multiple layers. The Maxwell stress equation for MUDEAs was also derived and was found to be the same as for the unconstrained DEA case. The static deflection against input voltage for two, three and four layer MUDEAs was simulated using the developed FEA approach and validated against experiments. The experimental MUDEAs had an inhomogeneous Gaussian layer geometry resulting from the fabrication process used. The model showed good agreement with the experimental data. The validated finite element model was used to investigate the effects of layer number on unimorph tip deflection for several layer thicknesses. The results show that there is an optimum number of layers for which tip deflection is a maximum and that when large deflections are expected it is more efficient to use thinner layers, rather than thicker layers, for a given overall stack thickness. (Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

Thin-film dielectric elastomer sensors to measure the contraction force of smooth muscle cells

The development of thin-film dielectric elastomer strain sensors for the characterization of smooth muscle cell (SMC) contraction is presented here. Smooth muscle disorders are an integral part of diseases such as asthma and emphysema. Analytical tools enabling the characterization of SMC function i.e. contractile force and strain, in a low-cost and highly parallelized manner are necessary for toxicology screening and for the development of new and more effective drugs. The main challenge with the design of such tools is the accurate measurement of the extremely low contractile cell forces expected as a result of SMC monolayer contraction (as low as ~ 100 μN). Our approach utilizes ultrathin (~5 μm) and soft elastomer membranes patterned with elastomer-carbon composite electrodes, onto which the SMCs are cultured. The cell contraction induces an in-plane strain in the elastomer membrane, predicted to be in the order 1 %, which can be measured via the change in the membrane capacitance. The cell force can subsequently be deduced knowing the mechanical properties of the elastomer membrane. We discuss the materials and fabrication methods selected for our system and present preliminary results indicating their biocompatibility. We fabricate functional capacitive senor prototypes with good signal stability over the several hours (~ 0.5% variation). We succeed in measuring in-plane strains of 1 % with our fabricated devices with good repeatability and signal to noise ratio.

Maximizing strain in miniaturized dielectric elastomer actuators

We present a theoretical model to optimise the unidirectional motion of a rigid object bonded to a miniaturized dielectric elastomer actuator (DEA), a configuration found for example in AMI’s haptic feedback devices, or in our tuneable RF phase shifter. Recent work has shown that unidirectional motion is maximized when the membrane is both anistropically prestretched and subjected to a dead load in the direction of actuation. However, the use of dead weights for miniaturized devices is clearly highly impractical. Consequently smaller devices use the membrane itself to generate the opposing force. Since the membrane covers the entire frame, one has the same prestretch condition in the active (actuated) and passive zones. Because the passive zone contracts when the active zone expands, it does not provide a constant restoring force, reducing the maximum achievable actuation strain. We have determined the optimal ratio between the size of the electrode (active zone) and the passive zone, as well as the optimal prestretch in both in-plane directions, in order to maximize the absolute displacement of the rigid object placed at the active/passive border. Our model and experiments show that the ideal active ratio is 50%, with a displacement twice smaller than what can be obtained with a dead load. We expand our fabrication process to also show how DEAs can be laser-post-processed to remove carefully chosen regions of the passive elastomer membrane, thereby increasing the actuation strain of the device.

Versatile fabrication of PDMS-carbon electrodes for silicone dielectric elastomer transducers

We report a novel method for the fabrication of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-carbon composite electrodes for silicone dielectric elastomer transducers. The methodology combines patterning by laser ablation and oxygen plasma induced bonding, producing stretchable and flexible devices with exceptional electrode adhesion and high mechanical robustness. The methodology also offers great flexibility in the size and scale of electrode designs; we demonstrate this in the fabrication of flexible bending actuators > 10 cm long and interdigitated capacitive sensors with micro-scale features.