Ole Jørgen Hanssen

Environmental impacts of product systems in a life cycle perspective: a survey of five product types based on life cycle assessments studies

Abstract This paper summarizes results of 18 LCA studies of a variety of products from Norway and Sweden. The products were categorized into five groups based on the functionality and application characteristics, in order to investigate the feasibility of generalization of LCA results. The five product groups were: I: products that are transformed chemically in their application; II: stationary, inert products without intrinsic energy consumption in the use phase; III: stationary, inert products with energy consumption in the use phase; IV: transport products without intrinsic energy consumption in the use phase; V: transport products with energy consumption in the use phase. Statistical tests were carried out to analyze the significance of the characterization into product groups, both within the groups and between the groups. The hypothesis was, that among the products within each group, the environmental impacts would show similar patterns, when distributed on the six life cycle subsystems raw material extraction, product manufacturing, distribution, packaging, use and final waste management. The results show that there are significant differences between the environmental impacts related to life cycle stages within the product groups, whereas very few comparisons between product types are significant. The most important life cycle stages are in general raw material processing, use of the product and final waste management. There are also large differences in evaluation of impacts between the different valuation systems used in the study. It is concluded that there are large differences between product types and life cycle stages, and that these differences are probably even larger when looking to average European conditions. The results should thus only be generalized under specific Norwegian and Swedish conditions, especially regarding energy production.

Statistical properties of emission data in life cycle assessments

Abstract The objective of the present paper was to evaluate the statistical properties of emission factors as they are used in life cycle assessment (LCA) studies at present. A group of 26 sulphate pulp mills in Sweden has been used in the study, based on measured emissions to air and water in the period 1986–1993. The study showed large variations in annual emission factors within a group of companies. For most emissions to water, emission factors were independent of annual pulp production rates. Emission factors for an industrial branch can thus be used independent of the size of the plant in LCA studies. When comparing different types of statistical distributions for emission factors, the data set deviated significantly from all the tested distributions. Most emission factors tended to be best represented by a binomial distribution, indicating that emission factors should be square-root transformed before being used in statistical tests. However, not even a square-root transformation resulted in really normally distributed data sets for the emission factors from the pulp mills. The paper discusses several reasons for the large variation in emission factors. Strict regulations from authorities and development of environmental management systems seem to be most efficient in reducing emission factors and annual variations in emission factors.

Initiatives on prevention of food waste in the retail and wholesale trades

This project was initiated by the Nordic Council of Ministers and its waste prevention group. The background to the project is that waste prevention is the highest priority in the waste hierarchy a ...

Status of life cycle assessment (LCA) activities in the nordic region

The status of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) activities in the Nordic Region (period 1995-97) is presented, based on more than 350 reported studies from industrial companies and research institutes in Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Finland. A large number of industrial sectors is represented, with car components, building materials, pulp and paper products, electronic components and packaging as the most important ones. All aspects of LCA methodology are used: 90% use impact assessment, 80% impact assessment and valuation step. In most studies, more than one valuation method is used for ranking environmental impacts.LCA studies are well integrated in the business activities in many large Nordic corporations. From the early attempts, more familiar with LCA methodology, LCA has been integrated in strategy development, product development, process development and, to some extent, marketing. LCA has not only been used in the strict sense presented in the ISO 14040-43 standards. The systems approach, which is the basis for LCA, has also been modified and used in Sustainable Product Development, and in Environmental Performance Indicator and Product Declarations development. Future applications should be within Environmental Impact Assessments.

National indicators for material efficiency and waste minimization for the Norwegian packaging sector 1995–2001

Abstract The Packaging Directive approved by EU in 1994 (62/94) initiated national activities regarding packaging waste minimization, recycling and energy recovery. In Norway, a packaging covenant between the Ministry of Environment and the packaging sector was established, where one of the elements was a voluntary program for reducing waste from the total packaging sector, defined as all the users of packaging materials in Norway. Ostfold Research Foundation has developed an indicator system to follow development in material efficiency and waste minimization in the packaging sector. The indicator system is based on an Eco-efficiency approach, with measurements of packaging consumption per 1000 NOK turnover in companies adjusted for changing in the total consumer price index. A total of about 40 companies from 15 sectors of packers and fillers have participated with data over 3 years (1998–2001), whereas two companies have been followed over a period of 6 years (1995–2001). In addition, two product groups (juice and lemonade) have been followed within a large share of the Norwegian market in the period 1995–2001. The results show minor changes in the total packaging sector over the four last years, with a reduction in intensity of consumer packaging and a parallel increase in intensity of retail and transport packaging. However, there seems to have been achieved significant efficiency gains in the two companies in the period 1995–1998, and also in the distribution of concentrated lemonade. The indicator system which is based on a representative sample of companies within economic important sectors in Norway is regarded as a promising approach for measuring material efficiency and waste minimization in national packaging sectors, and could be implemented on an European basis to follow up the Packaging Directive.

Application of LCA as a decision-making tool for waste management systems

Aim, Scope and BackgroundWhen materials are recycled they are made available for use for several future life cycles and can therefore replace virgin material more than just once. In order to analyse the optimal waste management system for a given material, the authors have analysed the material flows in a life cycle perspective. It is important to distinguish this approach for material flow analysis for a given material from life cycle analysis of products. A product life cycle analysis analyses the product system from cradle to grave, but uses some form of allocation in order to separate the life cycle of one product from another in cases where component materials are recycled. This paper does not address allocation of burdens between different product systems, but rather focuses on methodology for decision making for waste management systems where the optimal waste management system for a given material is analysed. The focus here is the flow of the given material from cradle (raw material extraction) to grave (the material, or its inherent energy, is no longer available for use). The limitation on the number of times materials can be recycled is set by either the recycling rate, or the technical properties of the recycled material.Main FeaturesThis article describes a mathematical geometric progression approach that can be used to expand the system boundaries and allow for recycling a given number of times. Case studies for polyethylene and paperboard are used to illustrate the importance of including these aspects when part of the Goal and Scope for the LCA study is to identify which waste management treatment options are best for a given material. The results and discussion examine the different conclusions that can be reached about which waste management option is most environmentally beneficial when the higher burdens and benefits of recycling several times are taken into account.ResultsIn order to assess the complete picture of the burdens and benefits arising from recycling the system boundaries must be expanded to allow for recycling many times. A mathematical geometric progression approach manages to take into account the higher burdens and benefits arising from recycling several times. If one compares different waste management systems, e.g. energy recovery with recycling, without expanding the system to include the complete effects of material recycling one can reach a different conclusion about which waste management option is preferred.ConclusionsWhen the purpose of the study is to compare different waste management options, it is important that the system boundaries are expanded in order to include several recycling loops where this is a physical reality. The equations given in this article can be used to include these recycling loops. The error introduced by not expanding the system boundaries can be significant. This error can be large enough to change the conclusions of a comparative study, such that material recycling followed by incineration is a much better option than waste incineration directly.Recommendations and OutlookWhen comparing waste management solutions, where material recycling is a feasible option, it is important to include the relevant number of recycling loops to ensure that the benefits of material recycling are not underestimated. The methodology presented in this article should be used in future comparative studies for strategic decision-making for waste management. The approach should not be used for LCAs for product systems without due care, as this could lead to double counting of the benefits of recycling (depending on the goal and scope of the analysis). For materials where the material cycle is more of a closed loop and one cannot truly say that recycled materials replace virgin materials, a more sophisticated approach will be required, taking into account the fact that recycled materials will only replace a certain proportion of virgin materials.

The BioValueChain model: a Norwegian model for calculating environmental impacts of biogas value chains

PurposeThe BioValueChain model facilitates the calculation of environmental impacts throughout the value chain for production of biogas from organic waste and manure in Norway. This paper describes the methodology of the model, presents the results based on general data and performs a sensitivity analysis for the input data.MethodsThe model is based on life cycle assessment methodology and defines the boundaries of the system and a set of default parameter values which can easily be changed to obtain relevant results for a specific region or a specific biogas plant.Results and discussionThe general results from application of the model show that the application of biogas and digestate, including the assumption regarding which products are substituted, has significance for the results. The sensitivity analysis reveals that results for global warming potential (GWP) appear to be less sensitive for the different parameter values than the other environmental indicators. Increased biogas production from source separated organic household waste and manure from cattle and pigs appears to be an appropriate greenhouse gases (GHG) mitigation measure for Norwegian conditions if the biogas substitutes fossil fuels and if the digestate substitutes mineral fertiliser.ConclusionsThe results underline the need for the use of specific data, especially for transport distances, biogas potential and efficiency of biogas plant. Furthermore, in order to decrease the uncertainty of the results, more research is required into ways of modelling and quantifying direct emissions from the storage and application of manure and digestate on land.

Preventive environmental strategies for product systems

Abstract The paper describes a model for environmental quality and resource efficiency parameters to be used in evaluation of options for improvement of product systems in a life cycle and system perspective. Four main preventive strategies for product system improvements are described and discussed in the paper. (1) Reformulating user needs and requirements to the system; (2) improvement of product system performance; (3) substitution of the whole product systems or system components on different levels; (4) optimization within and between system units and components. These main strategies are discussed with respect to the structure of the product system (the domain theory), and with respect to efficiency in general. It is concluded that at present, it is not possible to make any definite rank of priorities between the different strategies, but that this should be evaluated when more systematic studies of cases are available.

Food Redistribution in the Nordic Region : Experiences and results from a pilot study

This report has a focus on waste prevention through redistribution of food to low-income people via charity organisations. Food redistribution can go via national food banks and via direct redistri ...

Food Redistribution in the Nordic Region

The Nordic Food Redistribution Project investigates food waste reduction through the redistribution of surplus food. The project goal is to increase and improve redistribution activities from donor ...