Olga Kopach

Persistent inflammation induces GluR2 internalization via NMDA receptor-triggered PKC activation in dorsal horn neurons

Spinal cord GluR2-lacking AMPA receptors (AMPARs) contribute to nociceptive hypersensitivity in persistent pain, but the molecular mechanisms underlying this event are not completely understood. We report that complete Freunds adjuvant (CFA)-induced peripheral inflammation induces synaptic GluR2 internalization in dorsal horn neurons during the maintenance of CFA-evoked nociceptive hypersensitivity. This internalization is initiated by GluR2 phosphorylation at Ser880 and subsequent disruption of GluR2 binding to its synaptic anchoring protein (GRIP), resulting in a switch of GluR2-containing AMPARs to GluR2-lacking AMPARs and an increase of AMPAR Ca2+ permeability at the synapses in dorsal horn neurons. Spinal cord NMDA receptor-mediated triggering of protein kinase C (PKC) activation is required for the induction and maintenance of CFA-induced dorsal horn GluR2 internalization. Moreover, preventing CFA-induced spinal GluR2 internalization through targeted mutation of the GluR2 PKC phosphorylation site impairs CFA-evoked nociceptive hypersensitivity during the maintenance period. These results suggest that dorsal horn GluR2 internalization might participate in the maintenance of NMDA receptor/PKC-dependent nociceptive hypersensitivity in persistent inflammatory pain.

Inflammation alters trafficking of extrasynaptic AMPA receptors in tonically firing lamina II neurons of the rat spinal dorsal horn

&NA; Peripheral inflammation alters AMPA receptor (AMPAR) subunit trafficking and increases AMPAR Ca2+ permeability at synapses of spinal dorsal horn neurons. However, it is unclear whether AMPAR trafficking at extrasynaptic sites of these neurons also changes under persistent inflammatory pain conditions. Using patch‐clamp recording combined with Ca2+ imaging and cobalt staining, we found that, under normal conditions, an extrasynaptic pool of AMPARs in rat substantia gelatinosa (SG) neurons of spinal dorsal horn predominantly consists of GluR2‐containing Ca2+‐impermeable receptors. Maintenance of complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA)‐induced inflammation was associated with a marked enhancement of AMPA‐induced currents and [Ca2+]i transients in SG neurons, while, as we previously showed, the amplitude of synaptically evoked AMPAR‐mediated currents was not changed 24 h after CFA. These findings indicate that extrasynaptic AMPARs are upregulated and their Ca2+ permeability increases dramatically. This increase occurred in SG neurons characterized by intrinsic tonic firing properties, but not in those exhibited strong adaptation. This increase was also accompanied by an inward rectification of AMPA‐induced currents and enhancement of sensitivity to a highly selective Ca2+‐permeable AMPAR blocker, IEM‐1460. Electron microcopy and biochemical assays additionally showed an increase in the amount of GluR1 at extrasynaptic membranes in dorsal horn neurons 24 h post‐CFA. Taken together, our findings indicate that CFA‐induced inflammation increases functional expression and proportion of extrasynaptic GluR1‐containing Ca2+‐permeable AMPARs in tonically firing excitatory dorsal horn neurons, suggesting that the altered extrasynaptic AMPAR trafficking might participate in the maintenance of persistent inflammatory pain. Persistent peripheral inflammation increases functional expression and proportion of extrasynaptic GluR1‐containing Ca2+‐permeable AMPARs within their entire pool specifically in tonically firing SG neurons.

PKCα is required for inflammation-induced trafficking of extrasynaptic AMPA receptors in tonically firing lamina II dorsal horn neurons during the maintenance of persistent inflammatory pain

UNLABELLED Persistent inflammation promotes internalization of synaptic GluR2-containing, Ca(2+)-impermeable AMPA receptors (AMPARs) and insertion of GluR1-containing, Ca(2+)-permeable AMPARs at extrasynaptic sites in dorsal horn neurons. Previously we have shown that internalization of synaptic GluR2-containing AMPARs requires activation of spinal cord protein kinase C alpha (PKCα), but molecular mechanisms that underlie altered trafficking of extrasynaptic AMPARs are unclear. Here, using antisense (AS) oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) that specifically knock down PKCα, we found that a decrease in dorsal horn PKCα expression prevents complete Freunds adjuvant (CFA)-induced increase in functional expression of extrasynaptic Ca(2+)-permeable AMPARs in substantia gelatinosa (SG) neurons of the rat spinal cord. Augmented AMPA-induced currents and associated [Ca(2+)](i) transients were abolished, and the current rectification 1 day post-CFA was reversed. These changes were observed specifically in SG neurons characterized by intrinsic tonic firing properties, but not in those that exhibited strong adaptation. Finally, dorsal horn PKCα knockdown produced an antinociceptive effect on CFA-induced thermal and mechanical hypersensitivity during the maintenance period of inflammatory pain, indicating a role for PKCα in persistent inflammatory pain maintenance. Our results indicate that inflammation-induced trafficking of extrasynaptic Ca(2+)-permeable AMPARs in tonically firing SG neurons depends on PKCα, and that this PKCα-dependent trafficking may contribute to persistent inflammatory pain maintenance. PERSPECTIVE This study shows that PKCα knockdown blocks inflammation-induced upregulation of extrasynaptic Ca(2+)-permeable AMPARs in dorsal horn neurons and produces an antinociceptive effect during the maintenance period of inflammatory pain. These findings have potential implications for use of PKCα gene-silencing therapy to prevent and/or treat persistent inflammatory pain.

Development of inflammation-induced hyperalgesia and allodynia is associated with the upregulation of extrasynaptic AMPA receptors in tonically firing lamina II dorsal horn neurons.

Persistent peripheral inflammation changes AMPA receptor (AMPAR) trafficking in dorsal horn neurons by promoting internalization of GluR2-containing, Ca2+-impermeable AMPARs from the synapses and by increasing insertion of GluR1-containing, Ca2+-permeable AMPARs in extrasynaptic plasma membrane. These changes contribute to the maintenance of persistent inflammatory pain. However, much less is known about AMPAR trafficking during development of persistent inflammatory pain and direct studies of extrasynaptic AMPARs functioning during this period are still lacking. Using Complete Freunds adjuvant (CFA)-induced model of long-lasting peripheral inflammation, we showed that remarkable hyperalgesia and allodynia developes in 1–3 h after intraplantar CFA injection. By utilizing patch-clamp recording combined with Ca2+ imaging, we found a significant upregulation of extrasynaptic AMPARs in substantia gelatinosa (SG) neurons of the rat spinal cord 2–3 h after CFA injection. This upregulation was manifested as a robust increase in the amplitude of AMPAR-mediated currents 2–3 h post-CFA. These changes were observed specifically in SG neurons characterized by intrinsic tonic firing properties, but not in those that exhibited strong adaptation. Our results indicate that CFA-induced inflammation increases functional expression of extrasynaptic AMPARs in tonically firing SG neurons during development of pain hypersensitivity and that this increase may contribute to the development of peripheral persistent pain.

Extrasynaptic AMPA receptors in the dorsal horn: evidence and functional significance.

Extrasynaptic AMPA receptors (AMPARs) are widely expressed in the brain, spinal cord and periphery. These receptors are critically involved in activity-dependent synaptic transmission and changes in their functioning are causally linked to multiple neuropathologies in the central nervous system (CNS). However, most studies in this field have been concentrated on elucidating synaptic AMPAR functioning, leaving a possible involvement of an extrasynaptic pool of AMPARs in normal and pathological signaling open for consideration. Here, we review the present evidence for extrasynaptic AMPAR function in the dorsal horn neurons of the spinal cord, linking these receptors to neurotransmission and non-synaptic signaling in this part of the CNS. In addition, we summarize current knowledge about the role of extrasynaptic AMPARs in the development and maintenance of pain states during inflammation. This knowledge potentially suggests the development of alternative therapies to prevent and/or treat inflammatory pain.

Mitochondria adjust Ca(2+) signaling regime to a pattern of stimulation in salivary acinar cells

The salivary acinar cells have unique Ca(2+) signaling machinery that ensures an extensive secretion. The agonist-induced secretion is governed by Ca(2+) signals originated from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) followed by a store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE). During tasting and chewing food a frequency of parasympathetic stimulation increases up to ten fold, entailing cells to adapt its Ca(2+) machinery to promote ER refilling and ensure sustained SOCE by yet unknown mechanism. By employing a combination of fluorescent Ca(2+) imaging in the cytoplasm and inside cellular organelles (ER and mitochondria) we described the role of mitochondria in adjustment of Ca(2+) signaling regime and ER refilling according to a pattern of agonist stimulation. Under the sustained stimulation, SOCE is increased proportionally to the degree of ER depletion. Cell adapts its Ca(2+) handling system directing more Ca(2+) into mitochondria via microdomains of high [Ca(2+)] providing positive feedback on SOCE while intra-mitochondrial tunneling provides adequate ER refilling. In the absence of an agonist, the bulk of ER refilling occurs through Ca(2+)-ATPase-mediated Ca(2+) uptake within subplasmalemmal space. In conclusion, mitochondria play a key role in the maintenance of sustained SOCE and adequate ER refilling by regulating Ca(2+) fluxes within the cell that may represent an intrinsic adaptation mechanism to ensure a long-lasting secretion.

Inflammatory-induced changes in synaptic drive and postsynaptic AMPARs in lamina II dorsal horn neurons are cell-type specific.

Abstract Persistent peripheral inflammation alters trafficking of AMPA receptors (AMPARs) at the synapses between primary afferents and dorsal horn (DH) neurons that contribute to the maintenance of inflammatory pain. However, whether peripheral inflammation changes the synaptic activity within the DH circuitry and how it modulates synaptic AMPARs in different neuronal types still remain unknown. We find that complete Freund adjuvant (CFA)-induced peripheral inflammation prominently augments excitatory neurotransmission in rat lamina II neurons characterized by intrinsic adapting firing properties and apparently decreases it in the tonic firing lamina II neurons, suggesting different roles of these types of interneurons in pain processing. Peripheral inflammation also differentially changes inhibitory neurotransmission in these neuronal types, shifting the balance between neuronal excitation and inhibition toward excitation of the adapting firing, but toward inhibition of the tonic firing lamina II neurons. Synaptic AMPARs were differentially changed in the adapting firing and the tonic firing neurons, implying different mechanisms of AMPAR adjustment at the synapses in these types of interneurons during persistent inflammation. The inflammatory-induced, neuron-type specific changes in synaptic drive within the DH circuitry and synaptic AMPAR functioning in lamina II neurons may contribute to the persistent pain maintenance.

Cannabinoid receptors in submandibular acinar cells: Functional coupling between saliva fluid and electrolytes secretion and Ca2+ signalling

Cannabinoid receptors (CBRs) belong to the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily, and activation of CBRs in salivary cells inhibits agonist-stimulated salivation and modifies saliva content. However, the role of different CBR subtypes in acinar cell physiology and in intracellular signalling remains unclear. Here, we uncover functional CB1Rs and CB2Rs in acinar cells of rat submandibular gland and their essential role in saliva secretion. Pharmacological activation of CB1Rs and CB2Rs in the submandibular gland suppressed saliva outflow and modified saliva content produced by the submandibular gland in vivo. Using Na+-selective microelectrodes to record secretory Na+ responses in the lumen of acini, we observed a reduction in Na+ transport following the activation of CBRs, which was counteracted by the selective CB1R antagonist AM251. In addition, activation of CB1Rs or CB Rs caused inhibition of Na+-K+ 2 -ATPase activity in microsomes derived from the gland tissue as well as in isolated acinar cells. Using a Ca2+ imaging technique, we showed that activation of CB1Rs and CB2Rs alters [Ca2+]cyt signalling in acinar cells by distinct pathways, involving Ca2+ release from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE), respectively. Our data demonstrate the expression of CB1Rs and CB2Rs in acinar cells, and their involvement in the regulation of salivary gland functioning.

HIF-1α-mediated upregulation of SERCA2b: The endogenous mechanism for alleviating the ischemia-induced intracellular Ca2+ store dysfunction in CA1 and CA3 hippocampal neurons

Pyramidal neurons of the hippocampus possess differential susceptibility to the ischemia-induced damage with the highest vulnerability of CA1 and the lower sensitivity of CA3 neurons. This damage is triggered by Ca(2+)-dependent excitotoxicity and can result in a delayed cell death that might be potentially suspended through activation of endogenous neuroprotection with the hypoxia-inducible transcription factors (HIF). However, the molecular mechanisms of this neuroprotection remain poorly understood. Here we show that prolonged (30min) oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) in situ impairs intracellular Ca(2+) regulation in CA1 rather than in CA3 neurons with the differently altered expression of genes coding Ca(2+)-ATPases: the mRNA level of plasmalemmal Ca(2+)-ATPases (PMCA1 and PMCA2 subtypes) was downregulated in CA1 neurons, whereas the mRNA level of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPases (SERCA2b subtype) was increased in CA3 neurons at 4h of re-oxygenation after prolonged OGD. These demonstrate distinct susceptibility of CA1 and CA3 neurons to the ischemic impairments in intracellular Ca(2+) regulation and Ca(2+)-ATPase expression. Stabilization of HIF-1α by inhibiting HIF-1α hydroxylation prevented the ischemic decrease in both PMCA1 and PMCA2 mRNAs in CA1 neurons, upregulated the SERCA2b mRNA level and eliminated the OGD-induced Ca(2+) store dysfunction in these neurons. Cumulatively, these findings reveal the previously unknown HIF-1α-driven upregulation of Ca(2+)-ATPases as a mechanism opposing the ischemic impairments in intracellular Ca(2+) regulation in hippocampal neurons. The ability of HIF-1α to modulate expression of genes coding Ca(2+)-ATPases suggests SERCA2b as a novel target for HIF-1 and may provide potential implications for HIF-1α-stabilizing strategy in activating endogenous neuroprotection.

Inhibition of Spinal Ca2+-Permeable AMPA Receptors with Dicationic Compounds Alleviates Persistent Inflammatory Pain without Adverse Effects

Upregulation of Ca2+-permeable AMPA receptors (CP-AMPARs) in the dorsal horn (DH) neurons of the spinal cord has been causally linked to the maintenance of persistent inflammatory pain. Therefore, inhibition of CP-AMPARs could potentially alleviate an, otherwise, poorly treatable chronic pain. However, a loss of CP-AMPARs could produce considerable side effects because of the crucial role of CP-AMPARs in synaptic plasticity. Here we have tested whether the inhibition of spinal CP-AMPARs with dicationic compounds, the open-channel antagonists acting in an activity-dependent manner, can relieve inflammatory pain without adverse effects being developed. Dicationic compounds, N1-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)pentane-1,5-diaminium bromide (IEM-1925) and 1-trimethylammonio-5-1-adamantane-methyl-ammoniopentane dibromide (IEM-1460) were applied intrathecally (i.t.) as a post-treatment for inflammatory pain in the model of complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA)-induced long-lasting peripheral inflammation. The capability of dicationic compounds to ameliorate inflammatory pain was tested in rats in vivo using the Hargreaves, the von Frey and the open-field tests. Treatment with IEM-1460 or IEM-1925 resulted in profound alleviation of inflammatory pain. The pain relief appeared shortly after compound administration. The effects were concentration-dependent, displaying a high potency of dicationic compounds for alleviation of inflammatory hyperalgesia in the micromolar range, for both acute and long-lasting responses. The period of pain maintenance was shortened following treatment. Treatment with IEM-1460 or IEM-1925 changed neither thermal and mechanical basal sensitivities nor animal locomotion, suggesting that inhibition of CP-AMPARs with dicationic compounds does not give rise to detectable side effects. Thus, the ability of dicationic compounds to alleviate persistent inflammatory pain may provide new routes in the treatment of chronic pain.