Oliver C. Robinson

Sampling in Interview-Based Qualitative Research: A Theoretical and Practical Guide

Sampling is central to the practice of qualitative methods, but compared with data collection and analysis its processes have been discussed relatively little. A four-point approach to sampling in qualitative interview-based research is presented and critically discussed in this article, which integrates theory and process for the following: (1) defining a sample universe, by way of specifying inclusion and exclusion criteria for potential participation; (2) deciding upon a sample size, through the conjoint consideration of epistemological and practical concerns; (3) selecting a sampling strategy, such as random sampling, convenience sampling, stratified sampling, cell sampling, quota sampling or a single-case selection strategy; and (4) sample sourcing, which includes matters of advertising, incentivising, avoidance of bias, and ethical concerns pertaining to informed consent. The extent to which these four concerns are met and made explicit in a qualitative study has implications for its coherence, transparency, impact and trustworthiness.

Authenticity, Social Context, and Well-Being in the United States, England, and Russia: A Three Country Comparative Analysis

The study investigated interrelationships among trait authenticity, context-specific authenticity, and well-being in three samples drawn from England, the United States, and Russia. Six hundred and twenty-eight adults participated: 196 from the United States, 240 from England, and 192 from Russia. The overall sample consisted of 151 men and 477 women with a mean age of 27 years (range = 18 to 56). Authenticity was rated both as a general trait and specific to four contexts: with partner, parents, friends, and work colleagues. Well-being was measured using a measure of positive mental health. English and American samples showed higher mean authenticity levels than the Russian sample. In all three subsamples, within-subjects differences in the context-specific ratings were in the same ordinal series; authenticity was rated highest with partner, followed by friends and parents, and lowest with work colleagues. Context and country showed an interaction in their effect on authenticity; United States and England were higher than Russia in partner, friend, and parent contexts but not in the work context. Trait and context-specific authenticity measures contributed unique and significant variance to a prediction of well-being in all three subsamples.

Investigating the Form and Dynamics of Crisis Episodes in Early Adulthood: The Application of a Composite Qualitative Method

This study investigates the experiences and processes that characterise crisis episodes occurring between the ages of 25 and 40. The methodology is a composite of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (Smith & Eatough 2006) and Miles and Hubermans Interactive Model (1994). Analysis of interview data found a four-phase pattern in all the crisis episodes sampled, starting with a precrisis description of an externally controlled identity and being stuck in a domestic and/or vocational role that is no longer wanted but is maintained out of passivity or obligation. This is followed by the peak of the crisis, which is characterised by an emotional separation from that role and/or relationship and by a confused and undefined identity. The third phase involves exploration of new intrinsically motivated activities and an experimental search through alternative self-conceptions and activities. The fourth postcrisis phase brings a new commitment to a life structure in which identity, life roles, and social contexts are in equilibrium, and an enhanced sense of consent and control. The study demonstrates that the careful hybridisation of qualitative approaches is a fruitful enterprise, while the resultant four-phase model is proposed for further validation with other samples and demographics.

Intrinsic aspirations and personal meaning across adulthood: Conceptual interrelations and age/sex differences

The present study examined adult age and sex differences in self-reported aspirations and personal meaning. Young, midlife, and older adults (N = 2,557) from the United Kingdom or United States completed an online survey of their aspiration striving, aspiration importance, and personal meaning (subscales of Purposeful Life, Exciting Life, Accomplished Life, Principled Life, Valued Life). Predictions were made in line with humanistic and gerontology theories, which suggest that sources of personal meaning consolidate across the life span toward intrinsically motivated pursuits. Findings supported these predictions, showing that although there was a tendency for aspirations to decline with age, the proportion of intrinsically motivated aspirations increased, as did total meaning and the interrelationship between meaning and intrinsic aspirations. There were also gender differences in personal meaning and aspirations, which suggested a more pronounced midlife dip in intrinsic and purposive goal striving for men, and a greater focus on intrinsic aspirations in women. Developmental and cohort interpretations of these findings and directions for further research are discussed.

On the social malleability of traits: variability and consistency in big 5 trait expression across three interpersonal contexts

The current study investigated the effects of social context on Big 5 trait expression, and the moderating influence of social context on gender differences in personality. A short Big 5 instrument assessed trait expression in three contexts: with parents, with friends, and with work colleagues. Findings indicated significant cross-context variation in all five traits, while also showing cross-context within-trait correlations. These cross-context correlations found that Conscientiousness was the most stable of the Big 5 traits and that Extraversion the least stable across the three contexts assessed. Gender effects were found only at the trait-in-context level, suggesting a role for social context in moderating personality gender differences.

Values and adult age: findings from two cohorts of the European Social Survey

Human values are assessed biannually in a multinational sample as part of the European Social Survey (ESS). Based on theories of adaptive ageing, it was predicted that ten lower order values and four higher order values would show age differences that would be invariant across (a) two sample cohorts (2002 and 2008), (b) gender and (c) 12 industrialised nations. The value categories measured by the ESS are the following: conservative values (tradition, conformity and security), openness to change values (self-direction, hedonism and stimulation), self-transcendent values (universalism, benevolence) and self-enhancement values (power, achievement). Of the ten lower order values, tradition shows the strongest positive relation with adult age, while the value of stimulation shows the strongest negative relation with age. With regards to the four higher order value categories, conservative values increased across age groups, while openness to change values decreased. Neither of these value types showed cohort or gender differences. Self-transcendence values were greater in midlife and older adults compared with young adults, were higher in women than in men, and higher in the 2008 compared with the 2002 cohort. Self-enhancement values showed a negative relation with age, with men of all age groups scoring higher in this value type than women. Age effects on the four higher order value types were replicated across all 12 countries in the sample, with the single exception of self-enhancement values in Spain, which show no relation with age.

The prevalence, types and perceived outcomes of crisis episodes in early adulthood and midlife A structured retrospective-autobiographical study

The objective of the study was to gain data on the prevalence, types and perceived outcomes of crisis episodes in three age decades of adult life: 20–29, 30–39 and 40–49. A further aim was to explore the relationship between crisis occurrence and empathy. A retrospective-autobiographical survey instrument and an empathy questionnaire were administered to 1023 UK-based adults. Prevalence data showed that crisis in the 20–29 decade was reported by 39% of men and 49% of women, while in the 30–39 decade 47% of men and 51% of women reported a crisis, and 46% of men and 59% of women reported a crisis occurring in the 40–49 decade. When prevalence rates were compared by participants’ current age, a recency effect in crisis reporting was apparent. Work-related crises were more common in men, while relationship and family were more common in female crisis. The most common crisis contents across decades and genders were divorce/relationship break-up and debt/financial difficulties. Post-crisis growth was significantly lower in the 40–44 age range in men than in other age ranges for both genders. There was a positive relationship between self-report empathy and number of crisis episodes experienced.

The Variable Experiences of Becoming Retired and Seeking Retirement Guidance: A Qualitative Thematic Analysis.

ABSTRACT Thirty interviews were conducted with individuals across the UK who had retired between two and ten years ago, with the aim of exploring the variability of retirement experiences in terms of (a) retirement antecedents/reasons for retirement, (b) change in wellbeing and satisfaction over time, (c) personal relationships and (d) retirement guidance. Interviews were subject to a multi-level thematic qualitative analysis. Four meta-themes were established: 1 – positive continuity and challenge; 2 – liberation and release; 3 – loss and gain; and 4 – restriction, regret and decline. Participants can be classified by meta-theme, and the themes encompass co-occurring pre-retirement antecedents, post-retirement experiences, relationship factors and retirement guidance attitudes/experiences. The four themes provide a holistic, in-depth view of the wide variability of the retirement transition experience in white-collar workers in the UK. The variability-focused approach taken in the study can help towards identifying particular subgroups of retirees for bespoke retirement guidance or counselling.

The stormy search for self in early adulthood: developmental crisis and the dissolution of dysfunctional personae

This qualitative study investigated episodes of early adult crises and the impact of these on identity development. Six individuals were interviewed twice about an experience of formative crisis between the ages of 25 and 40. Results showed a common dynamic starting with a precrisis conformist persona, and an identity correspondingly divided into inner (true) and outer (false). Over the course of a stressful life transition, the person separates from the precrisis roles and relationships that nurtured this fragmented identity and searches for a more unified and integrated life structure. Postcrisis identity is sought through experimentation and trial-and-error. New jobs and relationships permit the expression of feelings, values and aspirations, which in turn brings a sense of autonomy and authenticity.

Relational Analysis: An Add-On Technique for Aiding Data Integration in Qualitative Research

The innovation of “add-on” techniques to supplement existing qualitative methods can be seen as part of a move towards a pluralist, eclectic qualitative psychology. This article presents such a technique, termed Relational Analysis, which can be used to help explore the full spectrum of possible relationships between analytical themes within qualitative data. To this end it employs 10 “key relational forms” (KRFs), all of which can act as meaningful links among themes/codes/categories/parts within a qualitative analysis. These are illustrated using examples from a recent study on retirement, and injunctions are provided for how to use them in exploratory analysis, in theory-construction, and in diagrams. Relational Analysis helps to promote a more integrated and connected qualitative analysis. It is an example of a “modular” innovation, that is, a tool for a particular task, to be used in conjunction with other methods, not instead of them. Modular innovation is suggested as a general principle for enhancing the ongoing development of qualitative psychology.