Oliver Mtapuri

Interrogating the role of the state and nonstate actors in community-based tourism ventures: toward a model for spreading the benefits to the wider community

The main objective of this article is to present a model of community-based tourism (CBT) and to expound on its benefits in relation to community development. It argues that, in order to promote holistic community development, genuine community-based enterprises must be under the full control of community members to avoid domination by the elite or external actors. The article posits that the character and methodology of intervention by external actors are paramount in determining the outcome of CBT development projects. In terms of who benefits from CBT ventures, this article argues that the benefits must be community wide. It reflects on two types of CBT (labeled types 1 and 2) and weighs their values in terms of their benefit to communities. Issues regarding cooperation between CBT ventures, common ownership of physical assets and the relevance of the accommodation sector are expounded. The main conclusion reached is that, regardless of the type of CBT services or facilities adopted, these ventures should remain fully owned, managed and controlled by community members (or groups of independent micro and small ventures under the same CBT management organization); external partners should provide facilitative and other supporting services instead of being a partner in the CBT venture itself.

Towards a comprehensive model of community-based tourism development

Community-based tourism (CBT) offers both opportunities and challenges in the quest for holistic community development. The evolution and development of CBT projects can follow different trajectories. This conceptual papers main contribution is the formulation of a comprehensive model of the development of CBT. The model suggests that CBT projects can be initiated from within and outside the community by the private, public and non-governmental sectors or a combination of these using a top-down or bottom-up approach. It also posits that CBT projects can take a formal or informal character depending on the conditions leading to their initiation. The paper highlights the benefits and constraints to the scaling up or down of operations linked to informality. It supports further research in analyzing the various aspects associated with the shift from formality to the informality of CBT projects and vice versa and the relationship with CBT development and holistic community development.

Community-based tourism: an exploration of the concept(s) from a political perspective

Tourism is always seen as a viable alternative means of boosting development in developing countries. Similarly, community-based tourism (CBT) is generally associated with development in poor, especially rural, communities. This article first presents CBT as a possible community development tool, exploring its conceptual and historical evolution, and then offers solutions for enhancing the opportunities and capacity of CBT in facilitating rural community development. To that end, a definition of community and notions of development are proposed, and a community development strategy, based on issues of empowerment, self-reliance, and sustainability, is explored. Special attention is given to local context issues in relation to community development. In addition, the origin and evolution of the CBT concept, and the linkages between the concept and alternative development paradigms from the 1970s are explored, including the notions of empowerment and self-reliance. This article makes two contributions. Firstly, it proposes that the current meaning of CBT does not coincide with the original concept of CBT because the contemporary policy milieu has changed. Secondly, it presents different CBT typologies in line with contemporary CBT concept(s) and issues of community development.

Teachers' perceptions of the Integrated Quality Management System : lessons from Mpumalanga, South Africa

This article examines the attitudes and perceptions of teachers regarding the implementation of the Integrated Quality Management System (IQMS). In doing so, it aims to contribute to the global discourse of change management in education. The system is intended to develop educators by enhancing their capabilities to inculcate a culture of teaching and learning. Using a qualitative research design, in which open-ended interviews were conducted, the study canvassed the views of stakeholders resulting from their personal experiences of IQMS. Having reflected on the current implementation model, the major contribution of the study is to posit an alternative model. The alternative implementation model proposes a bottom-up approach; continuous development; sustained (rather than once-off) training conducted by credible teams of eminent persons and strong leadership. Furthermore, the model should be well-resourced and be anchored on partnerships; concurrency of thrust; staggered changes and based on the following principles adapted from development discourse: participation, empowerment, ownership, learning, adaptability, and simplicity. There is consensus among stakeholders that the IQMS was implemented too rapidly. They recommended a longer, continuous training period that focuses on teacher development, thus delinking money issues from the IQMS, as well as engaging dedicated teams in order to ensure impartiality.

Can community-based tourism enterprises alleviate poverty? Toward a new organization.

Recently tourism in general and community-based tourism in particular are being touted as means to generate income and alleviate poverty. This article attempts to investigate the extent to which community- based tourism enterprises (CBTEs) are able to alleviate poverty using data gathered from four CBTEs in Mopani District Municipality of the Limpopo in South Africa. The study is essentially qualitative in design. Face-to-face interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect data. A thematic approach was used to analyze them. The study shows that the types of jobs that were created by the CBTEs now are low-level, menial, nonpermanent types of jobs. The poor absorptive capacity of new labor of these enterprises means that many people in the community remain unemployed for as long as alternative modes of employment are not found. However, communities learned about conservation, cooking and knitting, and community-building practices. A key contribution of this article is a new Social Learning and Change (SLC) organization as a necessary form of tourism organization to meet the challenges of developing countries in their quest to alleviate poverty using CBTE as strategy. It is an SLC initiative (perhaps a new CBO), consisting of multiple players. It may involve the creation of civic corporation/civic NGO/civic government consistent with SLC in which the issue and not the organization matters. It is about job creation, community cohesion, community development, inclusion, and empowerment.

Of Spirituality and Poverty: A Zimbabwean Cultural Perspective

Abstract This article, based on a desk study, connects African spirituality to the phenomenon of poverty and argues that mundane poverty alleviation strategies that ignore the cultural perspective of a people are doomed to fail, especially in the African context. Within this context, a domain such as transcendence is as ‘real’ to the people as the material world. This article delves into the alchemy of the traditions of African people from a Zimbabwean perspective in an attempt to understand some of the causes of poverty. The authors aver that development practitioners stand to gain if they take into account such (African) worldviews. The article shows that there is a disconnect between western culture and indigenous cultural beliefs and suggests that it is necessary to use phenomenological methods to unpack this disconnect because the spiritual world can support or limit the extent to which poverty alleviation programmes are effective. This means that the notion of development rooted in western knowledge frames may require opening discourses that imagine different social ontologies to find solutions in an (African) context. Thus, the challenge for phenomenologists is to research culturally-appropriate approaches to development using phenomenology.

Tourism, community-based tourism and ecotourism: a definitional problematic

ABSTRACT This article examines the definitional problematics associated with the many typologies of tourism focusing on tourism, ecotourism and community-based tourism. The wide range of typologies currently in use calls for more precise definitions to inform both policy and practice. The article argues that Government should shoulder this responsibility as it adopts the legislation and policies which regulate the sector. It unpacks the definitions employed by different role players, some of whom use them as marketing gimmicks. Based on definitions derived from secondary sources, the article argues that community-based ecotourism is an umbrella definition which encompasses environmental and cultural/social sustainability, local involvement/benefits, and social equity/redistributive justice and control of the tourism sector. It concludes that all typologies of tourism should be sustainable for the benefit of the hosts and that definitions should capture contemporary issues.

Managing flood disasters on the built environment in the rural communities of Zimbabwe: Lessons learnt

This article is about managing flood disasters affecting the built environment in the rural communities of Zimbabwe. Using Tsholotsho district in Matabeleland North province as a case study, the authors argue that flooding has adversely impacted the built environment through destroying infrastructure. The principal objectives of this study were to establish the impact of flood disasters on the built environment, to demarcate factors that perpetuate communities’ vulnerabilities to flooding and to delineate challenges that negate the management of flood disasters in the built environment. This qualitative study was based on a purposive sample of 40 participants. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and observation methods. The findings were that floods can damage human shelter, roads, bridges and dams. Locating homesteads near rivers and dams, using poor-quality construction materials, and lack of flood warning were found to perpetuate vulnerability to flooding. Poverty and costs of rebuilding infrastructure, lack of cooperation between the communities and duty-bearers, and failure to use indigenous knowledge were found to be impeding the management of flood disasters. The study concluded that flood disasters can wipe out community development gains accumulated over many years. Further, community vulnerability to flooding in the built environment is socially constructed. The study posits that addressing the root causes, reducing flood vulnerability and avoiding risk creation are viable options to development in the built environment. Lastly, reconstruction following flood disasters is arduous and gruelling, and not an easy exercise.

A REVIEW OF SOCIAL PROTECTION PROGRAMMES IN ZIMBABWE: LESSONS LEARNT

This article makes an entree into the social protection arena by exploring the political, technical, social, economic, legal and environmental dimensions of social protection using the ecology of human development as a foundation. As a point of departure, it argues that a clear understanding of the ‘total environment’ is critical in the design, formulation and implementation of social protection programmes. The method used for purposes of compiling this article is a desk study in which documents on social protection interventions used in Zimbabwe were reviewed. The key contribution of the article is a framework which may assist countries in the global south to understand social protection in general and to guide policy implementation and practice in particular. Some of the key lessons learnt from the Zimbabwean experience include the need to interrogate all interventions for feasibility, efficiency, effectiveness, dependency-reduction, appropriateness, sustain-ability, gender-sensitivity, incorruptibility, provision of exit mechanisms, administrative costs and adequacy of resources.

Employee Assistance Programme: The Case of a Local Municipality in South Africa

Abstract This paper focuses on the implementation of an Employee Assistance Programme (EAP) in the Makhado local municipality in Limpopo. It interrogates the challenges encountered in implementing the programme by examining the employees’ views and opinions. A self-administered, semi-structured questionnaire and face-to-face interviews were used to gather data. A key contribution of this paper is a model of an ideal EAP, which the researchers named Platinum, which should be comprehensive in terms of coverage; accessible in terms of distance; approachable in terms of staff manning the unit; adopt a macro-micro approach; have a dedicated contingent of qualified staff and required resources; meet the needs of both the employers and employees; and undergo regular review. The paper revealed that there is a general level of awareness and positive attitude towards the EAP on the part of employees. It is accessible and adequate, although not perceived to be comprehensive enough. Many employees were generally happy and perceived the EAP as addressing their challenges. However, the majority of the employees were not aware of the EAP policy within the municipality and did not participate in its formulation. The paper recommends the development of innovative marketing strategies that take into cognisance the literacy levels of employees within the municipality for effective implementation.