Oliver Pountney

Experimental Measurements of Ingestion Through Turbine Rim Seals—Part I: Externally Induced Ingress

Part I of this two-part paper presented experimental results for externally-induced (EI) ingress, where the ingestion of hot gas through the rim seal into the wheel-space of a gas turbine is controlled by the circumferential variation of pressure in the external annulus. In Part II, experimental results are presented for rotationally-induced (RI) ingress, where the ingestion is controlled by the pressure generated by the rotating fluid in the wheel-space. Although EI ingress is the common form of ingestion through turbine rim seals, RI ingress or combined ingress (where EI and RI ingress are both significant) is particularly important for double seals, where the pressure asymmetries are attenuated in the annular space between the inner and outer seals. In this paper, the sealing effectiveness was determined from concentration measurements, and the variation of effectiveness with sealing flow rate was compared with theoretical curves for RI ingress obtained from an orifice model. Using a nondimensional sealing parameter phio the data could be collapsed onto a single curve, and the theoretical variation of effectiveness with phio was in very good agreement with the data for a wide range of flow rates and rotational speeds. It was shown that the sealing flow required to prevent RI ingress was much less than that needed for EI ingress, and it was also shown that the effectiveness of a radial-clearance seal is significantly better than that for an axial-clearance seal for both EI and RI ingress.

Prediction of Ingress Through Turbine Rim Seals—Part I: Externally Induced Ingress

Rotationally induced (RI) ingress is caused by the negative pressure (relative to the external air) inside the wheel-space of a gas turbine; this negative pressure, which is created by the rotating flow in the wheel-space, drives the ingestion of hot gas through the rim seals. Externally induced (EI) ingress is caused by the circumferential distribution of pressure created by the blades and vanes in the turbine annulus: Ingress occurs in those regions where the external pressure is higher than that in the wheel-space, and egress occurs where it is lower. Although EI ingress is the dominant mechanism for hot-gas ingestion in engines, there are some conditions in which RI ingress has an influence: This is referred to as combined ingress (CI). In Part I of this two-part paper, values of the sealing effectiveness (obtained using the incompressible orifice equations developed for EI ingress in an earlier paper) are compared with published experimental data and with the results obtained using 3D steady compressible computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Acceptable limits of the incompressible-flow assumption are quantified for the orifice model; For the CFD, even though the Mach number in the annulus reaches approximately 0.65, it is shown that the incompressible orifice equations are still valid. The results confirm that EI ingress is caused predominantly by the magnitude of the peak-to-trough circumferential difference of pressure in the annulus; the shape of the pressure distribution is of secondary importance for the prediction of ingress. A simple equation, derived from the orifice model, provides a very good correlation of the computed values of effectiveness. Using this correlation, it is possible to estimate the minimum sealing flow rate to prevent ingress without the need to know anything about the pressure distribution in the annulus; this makes the orifice model a powerful tool for rim-seal design.

Effect of Ingestion on Temperature of Turbine Disks

This paper describes experimental results from a research facility which experimentally models hot-gas ingress into the wheel-space of an axial turbine stage with an axial-clearance rim seal. Thermochromic liquid crystal (TLC) was used to determine the effect of ingestion on heat transfer to the rotating disk; as far as the authors are aware, this is the first time that the measured effects of ingestion on adiabatic temperature have been published. An adiabatic effectiveness for the rotor was defined, and this definition was used to determine when the effect of ingress was first experienced by the rotor. Concentration measurements on the stator were used to determine the sealing effectiveness of the rim seal, and transient heat transfer tests with heated sealing air were used to determine the adiabatic effectiveness of the rotor. The thermal buffer ratio, which is defined as the ratio of the sealing flow rate when ingress first occurs to that when it is first experienced by the rotor, was shown to depend on the turbulent flow parameter. The local Nusselt numbers, Nu, which were measured on the rotor, were significantly smaller than those for a free disk; they decreased as the sealing flow rate decreased and as the ingress correspondingly increased. The values of Nu and adiabatic effectiveness obtained in these experiments provide data for the validation of CFD codes but caution is needed if they (particularly the values of Nu) are to be extrapolated to engine conditions.

Prediction of ingress through turbine rim seals-part II: Combined ingress

In Part I of this two-part paper, the orifice equations were solved for the case of externally induced (EI) ingress, where the effects of rotational speed are negligible. In Part II, the equations are solved, analytically and numerically, for combined ingress (CI), where the effects of both rotational speed and external flow are significant. For the CI case, the orifice model requires the calculation of three empirical constants, including Cd,e,RI and Cd,e,EI, the discharge coefficients for rotationally induced (RI) and EI ingress. For the analytical solutions, the external distribution of pressure is approximated by a linear saw-tooth model; for the numerical solutions, a fit to the measured pressures is used. It is shown that although the values of the empirical constants depend on the shape of the pressure distribution used in the model, the theoretical variation of Cw,min (the minimum nondimensional sealing flow rate needed to prevent ingress) depends principally on the magnitude of the peak-to-trough pressure difference in the external annulus. The solutions of the orifice model for Cw,min are compared with published measurements, which were made over a wide range of rotational speeds and external flow rates. As predicted by the model, the experimental values of Cw,min could be collapsed onto a single curve, which connects the asymptotes for RI and EI ingress at the respective smaller and larger external flow rates. At the smaller flow rates, the experimental data exhibit a minimum value of Cw,min, which undershoots the RI asymptote. Using an empirical correlation for Cd,e, the model is able to predict this undershoot, albeit smaller in magnitude than the one exhibited by the experimental data. The limit of the EI asymptote is quantified, and it is suggested how the orifice model could be used to extrapolate the effectiveness data obtained from an experimental rig to engine-operating conditions.

Prediction of ingress through turbine rim seals part 1: externally-induced ingress

Rotationally-induced (RI) ingress is caused by the negative pressure (relative to the external air) inside the wheel-space of a gas turbine; this negative pressure, which is created by the rotating flow in the wheel-space, drives the ingestion of hot gas through the rim seals. Externally-induced (EI) ingress is caused by the circumferential distribution of pressure created by the blades and vanes in the turbine annulus: ingress occurs in those regions where the external pressure is higher than that in the wheel-space, and egress occurs where it is lower. Although EI ingress is the dominant mechanism for hotgas ingestion in engines, there are some conditions in which RI ingress has an influence: this is referred to as combined ingress (CI). In Part 1 of this two-part paper, values of the sealing effectiveness (obtained using the incompressible orifice equations developed for EI ingress in an earlier paper) are compared with published experimental data and with results obtained using 3D steady compressible CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics). Acceptable limits of the incompressible-flow assumption are quantified for the orifice model; for the CFD, even though the Mach number in the annulus reaches approximately 0.65, it is shown that the incompressible orifice equations are still valid. The results confirm that EI ingress is caused predominantly by the magnitude of the peak-to-trough circumferential difference of pressure in the annulus; the shape of the pressure distribution is of secondary importance for the prediction of ingress. A simple equation, derived from the orifice model, provides a very good correlation of the computed values of effectiveness. Using this correlation, it is possible to estimate the minimum sealing flow rate to prevent ingress without the need to know anything about the pressure distribution in the annulus; this makes the orifice model a powerful tool for rim-seal design.Copyright

Graphene based skins on thermally responsive composites for deicing applications

This paper demonstrates the feasibility of forming multi-functional graphene based surfaces capable of thermal heating for de-icing applications. Developmental ink layers are deposited onto composite laminate skin surfaces and used to melt the ice-skin interface by Joule heating while simultaneously developing a thermal strain in the skin structure to develop a shear stress to debond the ice-skin interface. The electrical properties, microstructure, processing parameters, heat transfer and electro-thermal response of the electrically conductive developmental ink layers are examined along with the change in shape of the composite structure with temperature. Initial de-icing tests are demonstrated. Application sectors for the multifunctional skins include exposed instrumentation housings, structural members exposed to extreme environments, such as wind turbines, and transport (aerospace). The opportunity to limit the extent of ice build-up on structures has broad application opportunities to provide light -weight structures with reduced material costs and fuel saving for mobile applications and improved performance for instrumentation.

Experimental measurements of ingestion through turbine rim seals. Part 4: Off-design conditions

This paper describes results obtained from an experimental facility which models ingress through the rim seal into the upstream wheel-space of an axial-turbine stage. The experimental rig included 32 nozzle guide vanes and 41 symmetrical turbine blades, and the paper presents measurements of e (the sealing effectiveness) for single- and double-clearance seals for both over-speed (where the blades rotate faster than at the design point) and under-speed conditions. The design flow coefficient was CF = 0.538, and tests were conducted for 0 < CF < 0.9, which is larger than the range experienced in engines. The measured values of e were correlated by the ‘effectiveness equations’ for rotationally-induced (RI) and externally-induced (EI) ingress. The correlated effectiveness curves were used to determine Φmin′ (the value of the sealing flow parameter when e = 0.95), and the variation of Φmin′ with CF was in mainly good agreement with the theoretical curve for CI (combined ingress), which covered the transition from RI to EI ingress. Departure of the measured values of Φmin′ from the CI curve occurred at very low values of CF for all the seals tested; this was attributed to the effects of separation of the mainstream flow over the turbine blades at large ‘deviation angles’ between the flow and the blades. The measurements are expected to be qualitatively similar to but quantitatively different from those experienced in engines.

Effect of Ingestion on Temperature of Turbine Discs

This paper describes experimental results from a research facility which experimentally models hot-gas ingress into the wheel-space of an axial turbine stage with an axial-clearance rim seal. Thermochromic liquid crystal (TLC) was used to determine the effect of ingestion on heat transfer to the rotating disc; as far as the authors are aware, this is the first time that the measured effects of ingestion on adiabatic temperature have been published. An adiabatic effectiveness for the rotor was defined, and this definition was used to determine when the effect of ingress was first experienced by the rotor. Concentration measurements on the stator were used to determine the sealing effectiveness of the rim seal, and transient heat transfer tests with heated sealing air were used to determine the adiabatic effectiveness of the rotor. The thermal buffer ratio, which is defined as the ratio of the sealing flow rate when ingress first occurs to that when it is first experienced by the rotor, was shown to depend on the turbulent flow parameter. The local Nusselt numbers, Nu, which were measured on the rotor, were significantly smaller than those for a free disc; they decreased as the sealing flow rate decreased and as the ingress correspondingly increased. The values of Nu and adiabatic effectiveness obtained in these experiments provide data for the validation of CFD codes but caution is needed if they (particularly the values of Nu) are to be extrapolated to engine conditions.Copyright

Volumetric Velocimetry Measurements of Film Cooling Jets

This paper presents Volumetric Velocimetry (VV) measurements for a jet in crossflow that is representative of film cooling. Volumetric velocimetry employs particle tracking to non-intrusively extract all three components of velocity in a three-dimensional volume. This is its first use in a film-cooling context. The primary research objective was to develop this novel measurement technique for turbomachinery applications, whilst collecting a high-quality data set that can improve the understanding of the flow structure of the cooling jet. A new facility was designed and manufactured for this study with emphasis on optical access and controlled boundary conditions. For a range of momentum flux ratios from 0.65 to 6.5 the measurements clearly show the penetration of the cooling jet into the freestream, the formation of kidney-shaped vortices and entrainment of main flow into the jet. The results are compared to published studies using different experimental techniques, with good agreement. Further quantitative analysis of the location of the kidney vortices demonstrates their lift off from the wall and increasing lateral separation with increasing momentum flux ratio. The lateral divergence correlates very well with the self-induced velocity created by the wall-vortex interaction. Circulation measurements quantify the initial roll up and decay of the kidney vortices and show that the point of maximum circulation moves downstream with increasing momentum flux ratio. The potential for non-intrusive volumetric velocimetry measurements in turbomachinery flow has been clearly demonstrated.Copyright

Experimental Measurements of Ingestion Through Turbine Rim Seals: Part 2—Rotationally-Induced Ingress

This paper describes a new research facility which experimentally models hot gas ingestion into the wheel-space of an axial turbine stage. Measurements of CO2 gas concentration in the rim-seal region and inside the cavity are used to assess the performance of two generic (though engine-representative) rim-seal geometries in terms of the variation of concentration effectiveness with sealing flow rate. The variation of pressure in the turbine annulus, which governs this externally-induced (EI) ingestion, was obtained from steady pressure measurements downstream of the vanes and near the rim seal upstream of the rotating blades. Although the ingestion through the rim seal is a consequence of an unsteady, three-dimensional flow field and the cause-effect relationship between pressure and the sealing effectiveness is complex, the experimental data is shown to be successfully calculated by simple effectiveness equations developed from a previously published orifice model. The data illustrate that, for similar turbine-stage velocity triangles, the effectiveness can be correlated using a non-dimensional sealing parameter, Φo . In principle, and within the limits of dimensional similitude, these correlations should apply to a geometrically-similar engine at the same operating conditions. Part 2 of this paper describes an experimental investigation of rotationally-induced (RI) ingress, where there is no mainsteam flow and consequently no circumferential variation of external pressure.Copyright