Oliver Puk

Glycopeptide Biosynthesis in Amycolatopsis mediterranei DSM5908: Function of a Halogenase and a Haloperoxidase/Perhydrolase

Glycopeptides are important clinical emergency antibiotics consisting of a glycosylated and chlorinated heptapeptide backbone. The understanding of the biosynthesis is crucial for development of new glycopeptides. With balhimycin as a model system, this work focuses on the investigation of the putative halogenase gene (bhaA) and the putative haloperoxidase/perhydrolase gene (bhp) of the balhimycin biosynthesis gene cluster. An in-frame deletion mutant in the haloperoxidase/perhydrolase gene bhp (OP696) did not produce balhimycin. Feeding experiments revealed that bhp is involved in the biosynthesis of beta-hydroxytyrosine, a precursor of balhimycin. A bhaA in-frame deletion mutant (PH4) accumulated glycosylated but nonchlorinated balhimycin variants. The mutants indicated that only the halogenase BhaA is required for chlorination of balhimycin. Nonglycosylated and/or nonhalogenated metabolites can serve as starting points for combinatorial approaches for novel glycopeptides.

Nonribosomal biosynthesis of vancomycin-type antibiotics: a heptapeptide backbone and eight peptide synthetase modules.

During analysis of the recently identified gene cluster for the glycopeptide antibiotic balhimycin, produced by Amycolatopsis mediterranei DSM 5908, novel genes were identified and characterized in detail. The gene products of four of the identified genes (bpsA, bpsB, bpsC and bpsD) are nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs); one (Orf1-protein) shows similarities to small proteins associated with several NRPSs without an assigned function. BpsA and BpsB are composed of three modules each (modules 1-6), BpsC of one module (module 7) and BpsD of a minimal module (module 8). Thus, the balhimycin gene cluster encodes eight modules, whereas its biosynthetic product is a heptapeptide. Non-producing mutants were created by a gene disruption of bpsB, an in-frame deletion of bpsC and a gene replacement of bpsD. After establishment of a gene complementation system for Amycolatopsis strains, the replacement mutant of bpsD was complemented, demonstrating for the first time that BpsD, encoding the eighth module, is indeed involved in balhimycin biosynthesis. After feeding with beta-hydroxytyrosine the capability of the bpsD mutant to produce balhimycin was restored, demonstrating the participation of BpsD in the biosynthesis of this amino acid. The specificity of four of the eight adenylation domains was determined by ATP/PP(i) exchange assays: modules 4 and 5 activated L-4-hydroxyphenylglycine, module 6 activated beta-hydroxytyrosine and module 7 activated L-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine, which is in accordance with the sequence of the non-proteogenic amino acids 4 to 7 of the balhimycin backbone.

Biosynthesis of Chloro-β-Hydroxytyrosine, a Nonproteinogenic Amino Acid of the Peptidic Backbone of Glycopeptide Antibiotics

The role of the putative P450 monooxygenase OxyD and the chlorination time point in the biosynthesis of the glycopeptide antibiotic balhimycin produced by Amycolatopsis balhimycina were analyzed. The oxyD gene is located directly downstream of the bhp (perhydrolase) and bpsD (nonribosomal peptide synthetase D) genes, which are involved in the synthesis of the balhimycin building block beta-hydroxytyrosine (beta-HT). Reverse transcriptase experiments revealed that bhp, bpsD, and oxyD form an operon. oxyD was inactivated by an in-frame deletion, and the resulting mutant was unable to produce an active compound. Balhimycin production could be restored (i) by complementation with an oxyD gene, (ii) in cross-feeding studies using A. balhimycina JR1 (a null mutant with a block in the biosynthesis pathway of the building blocks hydroxy- and dihydroxyphenylglycine) as an excretor of the missing precursor, and (iii) by supplementation of beta-HT in the growth medium. These data demonstrated an essential role of OxyD in the formation pathway of this amino acid. Liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry analysis indicated the biosynthesis of completely chlorinated balhimycin by the oxyD mutant when culture filtrates were supplemented with nonchlorinated beta-HT. In contrast, supplementation with 3-chloro-beta-HT did not restore balhimycin production. These results indicated that the chlorination time point was later than the stage of free beta-HT, most likely during heptapeptide synthesis.

A Glutamate Mutase Is Involved in the Biosynthesis of the Lipopeptide Antibiotic Friulimicin in Actinoplanes friuliensis

ABSTRACT Actinoplanes friuliensis produces the lipopeptide antibiotic friulimicin. This antibiotic is active against gram-positive bacteria such as multiresistant Enterococcus and Staphylococcus strains. It consists of 10 amino acids that form a ring structure and 1 exocyclic amino acid to which an acyl residue is attached. By a reverse genetic approach, biosynthetic genes were identified that are required for the nonribosomal synthesis of the antibiotic. In close proximity two genes (glmA and glmB) were found which are involved in the production of methylaspartate, one of the amino acids of the peptide core. Methylaspartate is synthesized by a glutamate mutase mechanism, which was up to now only described for glutamate fermentation in Clostridium sp. or members of the family Enterobacteriaceae. The active enzyme consists of two subunits, and the corresponding genes overlap each other. To demonstrate enzyme activity in a heterologous host, it was necessary to genetically fuse glmA and glmB. The resulting gene was overexpressed in Streptomyces lividans, and the fusion protein was purified in an active form. For gene disruption mutagenesis, a host-vector system was established which enables genetic manipulation of Actinoplanes spp. for the first time. Thus, targeted inactivation of biosynthetic genes was possible, and their involvement in friulimicin biosynthesis was demonstrated.

The border sequence of the balhimycin biosynthesis gene cluster from Amycolatopsis balhimycina contains bbr, encoding a StrR-like pathway-specific regulator

Balhimycin, produced by the actinomycete Amycolatopsis balhimycina DSM5908, is a glycopeptide antibiotic highly similar to vancomycin, the antibiotic of ‘last resort’ used for the treatment of resistant Gram-positive pathogenic bacteria. Partial sequence of the balhimycin biosynthesis gene cluster was previously reported. In this work, cosmids which overlap the region of the characterized gene cluster were isolated and sequenced. At the ‘left’ end of the cluster, genes were identified which are involved in balhimycin biosynthesis, transport, resistance and regulation. The ‘right’ end border is defined by a putative 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate 7-phosphate synthase (dahp) gene. The proximate gene is similar to a type I polyketide synthase gene of the rifamycin producer Amycolatopsis mediterranei indicating that another biosynthesis gene cluster might be located directly next to the balhimycin gene cluster. The newly identified StrR-like pathway-specific regulator, Bbr, was characterized to be a DNA-binding protein and may have a role in balhimycin biosynthesis. Purified N-terminally His-tagged Bbr shows specific DNA-binding to five promoter regions within the gene cluster. By in silico analysis and by comparison of the DNA sequences binding Bbr, conserved inverted repeat sequences for the Bbr-binding site are proposed. The putative Bbr consensus sequence differs from that published for StrR.