Olivier Sykes

Neo-liberalization Processes and Spatial Planning in France, Germany, and the Netherlands: An Exploration

Abstract ‘Is the English experience distinctive?’ It is this question, asked by the guest editors of this Special Issue, that triggered this article focusing on the impact of neo-liberal ideologies on planning in Germany, France, and the Netherlands. The multi-faceted concept of neo-liberalism is used here as a perspective to interpret the recent developments in the three countries. Proposed changes to planning in England are also briefly considered. Although there are clear differences in the magnitude and actual manifestation of neo-liberalism in planning across the analyzed countries, with England clearly showing some of the more radical and disruptive effects, there seems to be a clear direction in which planning in North West Europe is heading. Due to processes of globalization, individualization, and Europeanization, questions also arise in each country regarding the position and objectives of planning. Neo-liberalization processes tend to further accentuate these questions as planning more often than not is grounded on a different set of principles. Yet, this does not necessarily completely dissociate planning from neo-liberalism. In particular, the French and German experiences indicate that even in broadly ‘neo-liberal times’, there is still a demand for spatial planning.

The concept of polycentricity in European spatial planning: reflections on its interpretation and application in the practice of spatial planning

The concept of polycentric development has emerged as one of the hallmarks of the emerging field of European spatial planning. It was one of the key principles in the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP), it has been frequently debated by academics, and it has been invoked by those engaged in spatial development policy making across the scales of multi-level governance in Europe. The concept is subject to multiple interpretations. This article argues that as well as being differentiated by spatial scale (vertical differentiation), the concept can also be differentiated horizontally by context. It is currently being interpreted and employed in at least three domains of meaning: in the emerging field of transnational spatial planning for Europe; in the practice of spatial development policy making at the various levels of multi-level territorial governance within Europe where planning occurs; and in an emerging academic discourse relating to European spatial planning. The article then focuses on the second domain where polycentricity is employed and has meaning ascribed to it, through a consideration of how the concept has been interpreted and applied in recent spatial planning initiatives in England. The article concludes that further ‘bottom-up’ comparative research and analysis is key to future research into the concept of polycentricity in European spatial planning.

The Importance of Context and Comparison in the Study of European Spatial Planning

Abstract The European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) was agreed in 1999 at Potsdam, Germany, as a non-binding framework intended to guide spatially significant policy-making at different spatial scales in order to achieve a more balanced and sustainable growth of the EU territory. This paper develops a conceptualization of the nature of transnational planning frameworks such as the ESDP and presents a framework for the investigation of the application of their policy orientations in the spatial planning systems of European states. It is argued that investigations of the application of transnational spatial development frameworks like the ESDP and the ‘Territorial Agenda of the European Union’ document adopted by EU member states in 2007, need to be sensitized to the diversity of territorial contexts in which these apply, and that a contextualized and comparative approach is therefore essential in evaluating their influence in Europes varied territories.

Investigating Territorial Positioning by Sub-state Territories in Europe

Abstract Since the 1990s, much attention has been devoted to exploring the extent to which regions in Europe seek to promote their development by capitalizing upon vertical and horizontal links with other territories and governance scales. In the same period, regional policy in many states has evolved from a traditional ‘redistributive’ model towards more territorialized ‘endogenous’ approaches that aim to foster the intrinsic endowments and capacities for growth and collective action of subnational territories. EU initiatives have also encouraged subnational authorities to overcome ‘insularity’ and to take into account interdependencies and European links in their spatial development strategies. The capacity to strategically engage in such ‘territorial positioning’ will become increasingly important for territories as they adjust to evolving European spatial and policy contexts. This paper explores the notion of territorial positioning and, through reference to recent developments in the North West region of England, provides an exploratory indication of how and why territorial positioning occurs in practice and with what success.

Planning Theory or Planning Theories? The Hydra Model and its Implications for Planning Education

Abstract This paper critically examines the idea that planning theory experiences major theoretical shifts. Through a consideration of contributions from several academics, it is shown that different theoretical standpoints in planning persist and coexist. A model is proposed to aid understanding of this situation: the Hydra Model. This model views planning as a discipline in which several standpoints maintain a competitive interaction. This is positive: it is the best way to promote lively dialogue and to develop new understandings. However it is considered negative for planners to adopt a single standpoint. Theories are presented as tools for good practice, not as something to which planners should commit. In aiming for the emergence of this type of planner — an individual capable of flowing from one theory to another according to a discretionary view of particular situations — some suggestions for planning education are presented.

European spatial development policy and evolving forms of territorial mobilisation in the United Kingdom

Although the UK is often characterised as one of Europe’s classic unitary states, the 1990s saw the emergence of a ‘new territorial governance’ (Roberts, 2000) at the sub-state level, with increased devolution to Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and London and the creation of new and strengthened institutions in the remaining English regions. Whilst mirroring wider trends towards decentralisation and regionalisation across Europe, these developments also serve to highlight the continued importance of the domestic dimension of regionalisation, as longstanding issues of national identity in the constituent parts of the UK, political domination by the centre, and economic disparities in national space have provided key drivers to the process. This paper evaluates how European contexts and policies have contributed to, and interacted with, the evolution of distinctive sub-state spatial planning strategies and frameworks in UK in the wake of increased devolution to the ‘Celtic nations’ (Roberts & Beresford, 2003, p. 23) and increased decentralisation to the English regions. More particularly, the paper explores the role played by the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) (Commission of the European Communities (CEC), 1999) in terms of how subnational actors have interpreted and applied its policy discourse to address the specific agendas and issues relating to their territories when developing spatial strategies.

Territorial Impact Assessment of European Draft Directives—The Emergence of a New Policy Assessment Instrument

Abstract European Union directives, along with their transposing arrangements in EU member states, can have unanticipated and sometimes undesirable impacts on certain regions and places. These include impacts on the use of space (e.g. new infrastructure or sprawl), governance, and on wider social, economic or environmental dimensions. Although ex-ante assessment of the potential impacts of EU initiatives has been carried out since 2002 through the European Commissions Impact Assessment procedure and also through national equivalents in some member states, important impacts are still overlooked, frequently because of their territorially heterogeneous nature within and between EU member states. This paper presents the results of the ESPON EATIA research project, in which a new territorial impact assessment methodology was developed for national and regional administrations in EU member states in order to inform their national positions during the negotiation of European draft directives and potentially other policy proposals.

Investigating Sub-state Interpretations of European Territorial Cohesion: The Case of the United Kingdom

In recent years the meaning and different dimensions and implications of European territorial cohesion have been a matter of debate in some academic circles, amongst elements of the European Commission and in certain Member States and regions. In 2008, the European Commission published its ‘Green Paper on Territorial Cohesion’, launching a debate on the meaning of territorial cohesion and potential implications for European, Member State and sub-state policies. Informed by this context, this paper considers how the concept of territorial cohesion is being interpreted, and its meaning (re)constructed, by sub-state territories and actors in the United Kingdom.

Can less sometimes be more? Integrating land use and transport planning on Merseyside (1965–2008)

The integration of land use planning with other spatially significant policy sectors has been a longstanding aspiration and subject of debate in the planning profession and academia. The strategic planning of the 1960s and 1970s, for example, frequently aimed to promote a more ‘spatialised’ management of public policies and programmes. More recently, in the 1990s and 2000s the notion of ‘spatial planning’, popularised by international debates and new forms of governance and public management, has similarly placed an emphasis on the coherent management and coordination of policies and activities with a spatial impact. Achieving greater coordination between land use and transport policy has been a recurring theme in discussions on the integration of land use planning and other sectors. Informed by the context outlined above, this paper considers integration between land use and transport policies, plans, programmes and projects from both a conceptual and empirical perspective. It postulates the existence of a continuum model of integration between policy sectors ranging from ‘light’ to ‘deep’ integration and identifies barriers to and enablers of the achievement of effective integration. These elements are then used to frame and interpret evidence on the integration of land use and transport policies in Merseyside (UK) between 1965 and 2008. The findings indicate that effective integration is more likely to happen at the centre of a continuum between light and deep integration, with the implication being that deeper integration between policy sectors does not necessarily result in more effective integration overall.

Addressing Connectivity in Spatial Planning: The Case of the English Regions

The need for an effective form of territorial governance and spatial planning to overcome sectoral and spatial insularity has been recognized by initiatives at a variety of spatial scales. However, in an increasingly interconnected world it is difficult to determine ideal ‘functional’ or natural ‘regions’ which enable spatial development trends and dynamics to be fully ‘captured’ by territorially bounded regional governance institutions. Indeed, for Schmitt-Egner (2002) the key spatial characteristic of ‘region’ is that it is a partial spatial entity characterized by vertical and horizontal linkages with other regions and other spatial scales. Reflecting this, the article considers the treatment of cross-boundary issues in the context of emerging sub-national planning in England. Key issues addressed are: what kinds of cross-boundary issues are identified at different scales? How are cross-boundary issues recognized and responded to in the regional planning process? What are the factors which contribute to building the capacity of the regional planning process to act in relation to cross-boundary issues? The review of regional planning processes across the English regions indicates that cross-boundary issues are recognized and responded to at three spatial scales, the transnational (including inter-regional), national (including inter-regional), and sub-regional (inter- and intra-regional). A more detailed consideration of the North West region of England demonstrates that a capacity to act in relation to cross-boundary issues is being built within the process of strategic regional spatial planning through the mobilization of networks of actors at the intra- and inter-regional levels.