Olufunke O. Cofie

The use of human waste for peri-urban agriculture in Northern Ghana

In Ghana, studies on the use of organic materials to increase soil productivity have focused on crop-residue management, use of green and animal manures, and legume cover cropping. Few studies have assessed the use of human waste for agriculture, even though this is widely practiced by farmers in the northern part of the country. This study was carried out to investigate the stakeholders in the use of faecal sludge (FS) for crop production in Tamale and Bolgatanga municipalities in the guinea savanna agroecological zone of Ghana. The aim was to determine the driving factors, constraints and potentials for this practice. Field survey and focus group discussions were carried out among 90 farmers who use FS, and officials of the Municipal Sanitation Unit were interviewed. Sixty-four percent of farmers interviewed used FS as a cost-effective way to improve soil fertility and increase yields of maize and sorghum. Sludge is discharged by spreading it on the soil surface, or it is stored and dried in pits during the dry season and incorporated into the soil at the onset of the rainy season. The high temperatures of the savanna climate and this long period of drying allow sludge to be handled easily. Although this treatment is perceived to reduce the number of pathogens in dried sludge, 22% of farmers complained of itching feet and foot rot after working with FS, which is done without wearing protective foot covering. This constraint is coupled with the foul smell, transport problem and public mockery associated with the use of human waste for agriculture. In spite of these problems, there is competition for FS among farmers, due to benefits derived from its use. Further investigation is required to ascertain the causes of itching feet and foot rot, and there is a need for education on proper handling and appropriate hygiene practices when working with FS. Information regarding optimal FS application rates is also required.

Co-composting of faecal sludge and organic solid waste for agriculture: process dynamics.

This paper presents the potentials and performance of combined treatment of faecal sludge (FS) and municipal solid waste (SW) through co-composting. The objectives were to investigate the appropriate SW type, SW/FS mixing ratio and the effect of turning frequency on compost maturity and quality. Solid waste (SW, as market waste, MW, or household waste, HW) was combined with dewatered FS in mixing ratios of 2:1 and 3:1 by volume and aerobically composted for 90 days. Four composting cycles were monitored and characterised to establish appropriate SW type and mixing ratio. Another set of five composting cycles were monitored to test two different turning frequencies: (i) once in 3-4 days during the thermophilic phase and 10 days during maturation phase and (ii) once in every 10 days throughout the composting period. Samples were taken at every turning and analysed for total solids (TS), total volatile solids (TVS), total organic carbon (TOC), electrical conductivity (EC), pH, ammonium and nitrate nitrogen (NH(4)-N and NO(3)-N) and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN). Temperature, C/N ratio, NO(3)-N/NH(4)-N ratio and cress planting trials were chosen as maturity indicators. Result showed a preference of MW over HW and mixing ratio of 2:1 over 3:1. There was no significant effect of different turning frequencies on the temperature changes and the quality of mature compost. The final product contained C/N ratio of 13 and NO(3)/NH(4)-ratio of about 7.8, while TVS was about 21% TS and the NH(4)-N content was reduced to 0.01%. A co-composting duration of 12 weeks was indicated by the cress test to achieve a mature and stable product. The turning frequency of 10 days is recommended as it saves labour and still reaches safe compost with fairly high nutrient content.

Dynamics of land-use and land-cover change in Freetown, Sierra Leone and its effects on urban and peri-urban agriculture-a remote sensing approach

This paper presents findings of a land-use and land-cover (LULC) change mapping exercise conducted in Freetown, Sierra Leone. Nine LULC classes were mapped from multi-temporal Landsat data of 1974, 1986 and 2000. Special attention was given to the growth or otherwise of agricultural land in relation to other LULC classes. Conversion of one land-use/-cover type to the other was identified, and its effects discussed. Major conversions occurred between agricultural lands, grasslands, evergreen forest, built-up areas and barren land. Built-up areas increased by at least 140% between 1974 and 2000, suggesting a high urbanization rate. About 882 ha (27%) of agricultural lands in 1986 were converted to residential purposes in 2000, especially at the urban fringes, in response to an increase in population. Some 14% of evergreen forest was found to have been converted to agricultural land. These major conversions suggest a strong linkage between urbanization, agriculture and deforestation.

Production and storage of N-enriched co-compost

Recovery of the organic fraction of municipal waste for peri-urban agriculture could contribute to the improvement of environmental sanitation and increase agricultural productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, municipal waste co-compost (Co) has low nitrogen (N) content. Therefore, this study investigated the type and form of inorganic N fertiliser that is capable of improving the nitrogen content of Co and monitored the changes in the properties of this N-enriched product under storage. To attain 30,000 mg kg(-1) (3%) N content, different amounts of urea or ammonium sulphate were applied in various forms (dry, paste and liquid) to enrich Co. The product termed comlizer was stored and its moisture, pH, total nitrogen, NH(4)(+)-N, NO(3)(-)-N, and C/N ratio were monitored under ambient conditions for two years. In the first four months of storage, total N content of 50 kg Co+3.26 kg urea (CoUD) increased from 31,333 to 54,000 mg kg(-1), and 50 kg Co+7.14 kg (NH(4))(2)SO(4) (CoASD) from 35,333 to 52,000 mg kg(-1). At the end of two years of storage, the initial N content of CoUD and CoASD decreased by 47% and 24%, respectively. Based on these results, it is recommended that dry (NH(4))(2)SO(4) should be used in N enrichment of Co, and that the comlizer should be stored in sealed bags but not more than four months.

Efficiency indicators for waste-based business models: fostering private-sector participation in wastewater and faecal-sludge management

Opportunities for public–private partnerships based on cost recovery from the reuse of human waste remain unexplored. In this paper, the authors present four potential business models involving aquaculture, biogas recovery, compost production and the use of faecal sludge as an industrial fuel, and describe their associated financial flows. The business models are based on efficiency indicators that can provide decision support to local authorities and entrepreneurs in choosing options that are best suited to local conditions and needs. The ultimate target should be that a portion of revenues from reuse can help finance less-profitable sections of the sanitation service chain.

Technological options for safe resource recovery from fecal sludge

Resource Recovery and Reuse (RRR) is a sub-program of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) dedicated to applied research on the safe recovery of water, nutrients and energy from domestic and agro-industrial waste streams. This sub-program aims to create impact through different lines of action research, including (i) developing and testing scalable RRR business models, (ii) assessing and mitigating risks from RRR for public health and the environment, (iii) supporting public and private entities with innovative approaches for the safe reuse of wastewater and organic waste, and (iv) improving rural-urban linkages and resource allocations while minimizing the negative urban footprint on the peri-urban environment. This sub-program works closely with the World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations University (UNU), and many national and international partners across the globe. The RRR series of documents present summaries and reviews of the sub-programs research and resulting application guidelines, targeting development experts and others in the research for development continuum. ii The authors Dr. Josiane Nikiema holds a Masters and a PhD in Chemical Engineering for design and optimization of processes. She is adjunct professor in Chemical and Civil Engineering at the Université de Sherbrooke in Canada and is a Researcher-Environmental Sciences based at IWMIs West Africa Office in Accra, Ghana. j.nikiema@cgiar.org Dr. Olufunke O. Cofie is a senior researcher with a background in soil science. She is Head of IWMIs West Africa Office in Accra, Ghana, and worked over the past 14 years in the interface of sanitation and agriculture. Unless otherwise noted, you are free to copy, duplicate or reproduce, and distribute, display, or transmit any part of this paper or portions thereof without permission, and to make translations, adaptations or other derivative works under the following conditions: ATTRIBUTION. The work must be attributed but not in any way that suggests endorsement by WLE or the author(s). NON-COMMERCIAL. This work may not be used for commercial purposes. SHARE ALIKE. If this work is altered, transformed, or built upon, the resulting work must be distributed only under the same or similar Creative Commons license to this one. Switzerland. The findings and conclusions contained within are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect positions or policies of the funders. The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) would like to thank the following research and development partners …

Gender Analysis of the Contribution of Urban Agriculture to Sustainable Livelihoods in Accra, Ghana

This article examines the sustainability of livelihoods through urban agriculture (UA): gender dimensions in Accra, Ghana. The population used for the study was the vegetable producers within and around Accra, Ghana. A mix of sampling techniques was followed in choosing UA producers. While a random sampling technique was employed in choosing male UA producers, all female producers who were willing to be interviewed were chosen. In all, 92 male producers and 8 female producers gave consistent responses that were analyzed. The results show that the mean age for male producers is 39.4 years. Female producers are more elderly with a mean age of 49.8 years. The mean year of schooling is 6.4 years for male producers and 7.1 years for female producers. While all the households are involved in irrigated farming, only 13% male and 25% female managed farms practiced irrigated farming alone. The majority of the male and female farmers indicated that high contribution of urban agriculture to their livelihoods. Farm size and access to credit were significant determinants of income from urban agriculture among the respondents.

Thirsty Cities: The Urban Water Footprint and the Peri-urban Interface, a Four City Case Study from West Africa

Urbanisation is increasingly affecting inter-sectoral water allocations. This paper looks beyond physical water transfers at the larger urban water footprint and how much it is affecting the urban periphery in the case of four cities in West Africa (Accra, Kumasi, Tamale and Ouagadougou). The results showed a water footprint variation between 892 and 1,280 m3/capita/year for these four cities based on actual and virtual water flows. The virtual flow through the food chain is outscoring actual domestic water consumption by a factor of 40–60 and using water resources far beyond the peri-urban interphase. However, the picture is changing with consideration of the grey water footprint. Due to limited wastewater treatment, peri-urban areas are the hot spots of water pollution diminishing their fresh water resources. The fresh water affected by the urban return flow easily doubles the overall urban water footprint. Improved on-site sanitation, especially with water saving and urine and excreta separating toilets would have a significant positive impact on the quality and quantity of the urban water footprint given that actual water availability is limiting large scale sewer connections for final wastewater treatment.

Governmental and regulatory aspects of irrigated urban vegetable farming in Ghana and options for its institutionalization

This chapter serves as an introduction to the book and provides brief information about urbanization in West Africa, and in Ghana in particular, the general role of urban agriculture and the common use of polluted irrigation water. It describes our focus on irrigated smallholder vegetable production and our understanding of the terms ‘urban‘, ‘peri-urban’ and ‘wastewater’. The chapter reflects on some of the key challenges of the farming system, its dynamic and resilience. It also gives an overview on the structure of the book, the origins of the data and the main objective of this publication.This chapter examines key institutional issues that are important to the recognition and sustainability of irrigated vegetable farming in Ghanaian cities. It assesses the informal nature of the business and examines current roles being played by relevant agencies directly or indirectly linked to urban vegetable farming and urban wastewater management. The chapter also looks at relevant bylaws, strategies and policies that have implications for the recognition of informal irrigation and/or the adoption of safety measures for risk reduction in irrigated vegetable farming. It also suggests options to facilitate the institutionalization of irrigated urban agriculture.This chapter examines key institutional issues that are important to the recognition and sustainability of irrigated vegetable farming in Ghanaian cities. It assesses the informal nature of the business and examines current roles being played by relevant agencies directly or indirectly linked to urban vegetable farming and urban wastewater management. The chapter also looks at relevant bylaws, strategies and policies that have implications for the recognition of informal irrigation and/or the adoption of safety measures for risk reduction in irrigated vegetable farming. It also suggests options to facilitate the institutionalization of irrigated urban agriculture.

Perceptions, attitudes and behaviours toward urban surface water quality in Accra, Ghana

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore people’s perceptions, stated attitudes, and observed and reported behaviour to water and other environmental quality. Design/methodology/approach – The study adopted a mixed method approach. It employed a cross-sectional survey design. Ten communities were selected in Accra and its surrounding communities to indicate various levels of infrastructure provision and environmental quality. Four separate focus group discussions (FGDs) were carried out in each community, with a mixed group of older and young adult men and women, a group of men only, a group of women only, and a group of young adults only. Following the FGDs, further information was obtained through structured household questionnaire survey involving 443 respondents. Findings – Different ideas were employed to explain people’s perceptions of water quality. There were common ideas such as on health, history of water use, perceptions which affect water use, and management of community activities wh...