Øystein Aas

Eco‐tourism Certification – Does it Make a Difference? A Comparison of Systems from Australia, Costa Rica and Sweden

Abstract In the current context of climate change, discussions about tourism sustainability are gaining increased momentum. Over the past decade, some operators worldwide have started to certify their products and services as ecotourism or sustainable tourism. A certification or approval is considered to be a sign of general high product quality as well as an indication of environmentally and socially sound products. In this research note, we examine three different ecotourism certification and approval systems – from Sweden, Costa Rica and Australia. The note is based on a literature review of three different approval systems, conducted parallel to the planning of the Norwegian approval system for ecotourism launched in 2008. We outline the criteria and standards required in the different programmes as well as the basic principles of how the three systems are organised, financed and implemented. The programmes’ strengths and weaknesses are briefly discussed, keeping a Scandinavian context in mind.

Re‐examining the consumptiveness concept: Some suggestions from a confirmatory factor analysis

Abstract This article re‐examines the concept of consumptiveness and its subdimensions. Consumptive elements in recreation experiences have been an important theme in human dimensions studies. Despite the fact that the consumptiveness concept is multidimensional, it has often been treated as unidimensional in the human dimensions literature. By using confirmatory factor analysis, this study evaluates previously suggested scale items and subdimensions of the concept of consumptiveness. It is concluded that much work remains to be done to establish a good consumptiveness inventory. Generally, several possible subdimensions of consumptiveness are not properly identified, nor are scale items sufficiently developed and tested. This study confirms a “General consumptiveness factor”; and further clarifies three independent and nested factors, namely “Eagerness to catch large fish,”; “Importance of catching something,”; and “Willingness to release fish.”; The “Release”; factor was positively correlated with the “Large”; factor.

The Socio-Demographic Influence on Participation in Outdoor Recreation Activities – Implications for the Norwegian Domestic Market for Nature-Based Tourism

Tourism is seen as the salvation for many rural areas when traditional businesses are downgraded. An important market base for these businesses comprises outdoor recreation participants. This study unveils significant differences between types of recreationists by analysing a national survey among Norwegians about their participation in four outdoor recreation activity categories: freshwater fishing, hunting, backcountry hiking and skiing, and adventure activities. Participation in these four activity categories is influenced by socio-demographic variables and these variables can be used when segmenting the nature-based tourism activity market. This study identifies two strategically important segments within this market – the members of outdoor recreation organisations segment and the segment with access to second-home. Further, this study clearly shows that young males have the highest likelihood of participating in all four of the activity categories. Freshwater fishing and hunting were most popular among residents in rural areas. Adventure activities were most popular among young academic males. Backcountry hiking and skiing was the most popular activity category among females.

The Influence of Norms and Consequences on Voluntary Catch and Release Angling Behavior

As catch and release angling (C&R) behavior increases, more knowledge is needed to understand the influence of norms and perceived consequences. Based on a survey of salmon anglers (n = 656) in Lakselv River, Norway, we showed that norms and awareness of consequences influence anglers’ behavioral intention of voluntarily releasing fish. Awareness of consequences had stronger impact on C&R behavior than the perceived social norm. The results from the structural modeling supported our initial conceptual model, and suggest that voluntary C&R is a process where the individual angler considers the biophysical (ecology, setting, species, status of stocks) and social setting in addition to other factors. Future research should look further into the cognitive part of obligation to do C&R, the more affective or emotional components of sanctions of doing or not doing C&R and the influence of knowledge, in different angler subpopulations and between types of fisheries.

Use of two approaches to measure children's motivations to fish in Norway

Abstract This paper reports on the use of two different methods to ascertain why 11‐ to 16‐year‐old children fish in Norway. The first method employed open‐ended questions to determine what the children liked best and disliked about fishing. The second method used fixed list, multiple‐item questions to solicit information about the relative importance to the children of 10 different reasons for fishing. The two studies yielded similar results about the primary reason why children fish, but the second study provided more in‐depth information about their multiple motivations. In the first study, childrens motivations to fish focused strongly on the desirability of catching fish and the undesirability of not catching fish. The second study revealed that many reasons or motives were important, but that catching fish was most important. Motivations differed with childrens age, gender and place of residence. Implications for sport fishery management and needed future research are discussed.

Local opposition against high-voltage grids: public responses to agency-caused science–policy trolls

ABSTRACT High-voltage (hV) transmission grids are projects of societal importance that potentially have controversial social and environmental impacts. Former research shows that public opposition is sparked by the perception of negative local impacts and unjust concessionary processes. In this paper, we complement these perspectives by assessing the institutional practices of the regulatory agencies in dealing with scientific uncertainties. The regulatory agencies’ ‘ways of doing things’ are often designed to serve policy and management needs. A critical point is that the demarcation between scientifically based facts, values and assessments is often blurred in the decision-making process. This paper draws on two Norwegian case studies to investigate how the regulatory agencies dealt with (1) electromagnetic fields and health risks and (2) overhead lines versus sea cables. We argue that ambiguities and uncertainties that arise in the hV transmission line processes create ‘trolls’, and we explore how the local inhabitants and affected stakeholders in the two cases responded to these and how it triggered further opposition. By investigating how and why trolls appear and are handled, we conclude by discussing how public opposition related to hV transmission grids may be reduced – and how some ‘trolls’ may crack.

Understanding Constraints and Facilitators to Salmon Angling Participation: Insights from Structural Equation Modeling

ABSTRACT Atlantic salmon sport fisheries have declined remarkably in many countries and participation seems to correlate with salmon abundance. We investigated angling participation in the Atlantic salmon sport fishery in Norwegian rivers by incorporating facilitators for participation in a constraint–negotiation model. We conducted an Internet survey of Norwegian anglers yielding 3,635 responses (40% response rate). The structural model confirmed our hypotheses and supported the conceptual constraints-effects-mitigation model of leisure constraint negotiation. Of the constraints and facilitators investigated, the structural constraints and facilitators subcategory “quality of fishing” exerted the largest influence on angling participation. The influence of constraints and facilitators was mitigated by use of corresponding negotiation strategies where “skills, knowledge, and money,” and different substitution strategies were important. To increase participation, we suggest increasing salmon abundance, offering longer fishing stretches per angler, and providing better information about where to book salmon angling.

Affective and cognitive dimensions of ski destination images. The case of Norway and the Lillehammer region

ABSTRACT To map the image foreign markets have of Norway as a winter tourist destination, and the Lillehammer region in particular, we surveyed 1000 respondents from Sweden, Denmark and Germany. We identified six key experience attributes that winter tourists seek: alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, general destination criteria, children-friendliness, other activities and snow. Two image-dimensions were identified: (1) friendly and safe and (2) thrilling. Danes had the highest score on the friendly and safe dimension, while Germans scored highest on the thrilling dimension. Whereas cognitive dimensions of destination image appeared to be of overall importance to Swedes in particular, the affective dimensions were strongest among German respondents. The model best explaining knowledge about the Lillehammer region included the following predictors: number of former visits to Norway during winter, home country (Swedes highest, Germans lowest) and personal interest in visiting snow destination for winter vacation. Differences among the three national markets relate to geographical and cultural distance and prior knowledge. While no large marketing challenges seem to exist in terms of mismatch between images held and destination characteristics, an untapped potential exists, especially with respect to German travelers, from developing marketing strategies that more clearly addresses different preferences between these main markets.

Managing river fish biodiversity generates substantial economic benefits in four European countries

Ecosystems and biodiversity produce benefits to society, but many of them are hard to quantify. For example, it is unclear whether European societies gain benefits from experiencing rivers that host high native biodiversity. Without such knowledge, monetary investments into ecologically oriented river management plans are difficult to justify. The objective of this study was to reveal how the public in four European countries values ecological characteristics of domestic rivers and the outcomes of hypothetical river basin management plans designed to improve river ecosystems, particularly fish biodiversity. We conducted a choice experiment among the populations in Norway, Sweden, Germany and France. We found similar preference structures in all countries with high marginal willingness-to-pay for improvements of abiotic river attributes (increased accessiblity of the river banks, improved bathing water quality, decreased river fragmentation). Citizens also benefited from certain fish species occurring in a river with native salmonid species being more valued than nonnatives, particularly in Norway, and from the degree of a river’s native biodiversity. Welfare measures calculated for selected river basin management plans (policy scenarios) revealed societal benefits that were primarily derived from ecological river management whereas a scenario focusing on hydroelectricity production generated the lowest utility. We conclude that ecological river management may produce high nonmarket economic benefits in all study countries, particularly through the management of abiotic river attributes and the restoration of declining or extinct fish species. Our results help to inform decisions on restoration efforts by showcasing the benefits that these measures have for the public.

Public perception of river fish biodiversity in four European countries: River Fish Biodiversity

Public support for biodiversity conservation is shaped by peoples values and their knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes toward the environment. We conducted the first multinational representative survey of the general publics perceptions of river fish biodiversity in France, Germany, Norway, and Sweden. For the online survey, 1000 respondents per country were randomly selected from large panels following country-specific quotas set on age, gender, and educational level. Questions covered peoples level of knowledge, beliefs, values, and attitudes toward river fish, environmental threats, and conservation measures. We found that the public had limited knowledge of freshwater fishes. Two non-native species, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), were widely perceived as native, whereas native Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) was mostly classified as native in Scandinavia and largely as non-native in central Europe. These results suggest an extinction of experience paralleling the extirpation or decline of salmon stocks in countries such as Germany and France. Respondents thought pollution was the dominant threat to riverine fish biodiversity. In reality, habitat loss, dams, and the spread of non-native fishes are equally important. Despite limited biological knowledge, respondents from all countries held an overwhelmingly proecological worldview, supported conservation stocking, and appreciated native fishes, although only a minority interacted with them directly. Differences among the 4 countries related to several conservation issues. For example, threats to biodiversity stemming from aquaculture were perceived as more prevalent in Norway compared with the other 3 countries. Promoting fish conservation based on charismatic species and use values of fishes may work well in countries with a strong economic and cultural link to the freshwater environment, such as Norway. In countries where people rather abstractly care for nature, focusing conservation messaging on broader ecosystem traits and non-use values of fishes is likely to win more support.