P. Cheang

Scaffold development using selective laser sintering of polyetheretherketone–hydroxyapatite biocomposite blends

In tissue engineering (TE), temporary three-dimensional scaffolds are essential to guide cell proliferation and to maintain native phenotypes in regenerating biologic tissues or organs. To create the scaffolds, rapid prototyping (RP) techniques are emerging as fabrication techniques of choice as they are capable of overcoming many of the limitations encountered with conventional manual-based fabrication processes. In this research, RP fabrication of solvent free porous polymeric and composite scaffolds was investigated. Biomaterials such as polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and hydroxyapatite (HA) were experimentally processed on a commercial selective laser sintering (SLS) RP system. The SLS technique is highly advantageous as it provides good user control over the microstructures of created scaffolds by adjusting the SLS process parameters. Different weight percentage (wt%) compositions of physically mixed PEEK/HA powder blends were sintered to assess their suitability for SLS processing. Microstructural assessments of the scaffolds were conducted using electron microscopy. The results ascertained the potential of SLS-fabricated TE scaffolds.

Tensile properties, tension–tension fatigue and biological response of polyetheretherketone–hydroxyapatite composites for load-bearing orthopedic implants

Polyetheretherketone-hydroxyapatite composites were developed as alternative materials for load-bearing orthopedic applications. The amount of hydroxyapatite (HA) incorporated into the polyetheretherketone (PEEK) polymer matrix ranges from 5 to 40 vol% and these materials were successfully fabricated by injection molding. This study presents the mechanical and biological behavior of the composite materials developed. It was found that the amount of HA in the composite influenced the tensile properties. Dynamic behavior under tension-tension fatigue revealed that the fatigue-life of PEEK-HA composites were dependent on the HA content as well as the applied load. The biological responses of PEEK-HA composites carried out in vivo verified the biocompatibility and bioactive nature of the composite materials.

Addressing processing problems associated with plasma spraying of hydroxyapatite coatings

Biomedical coatings generally have to satisfy specific requirements such as a high degree of crystallinity (for positive biological responses), good coating adhesion and optimal porosity. These are necessary to enhance biocompatibility, accelerate post-operative healing and improved fixation. Thermal spray processes have been frequently used to deposit functionally active biomedical coatings, such as hydroxyapatite (HA), onto prosthetic implants. The benefits of HA materials in coated implants have been widely acknowledged, but the occurrence of several poor performances has generated concerns over the consistency and reliability of thermally sprayed HA coatings. Recent investigations using HA coatings have shown that process related variability has significant influence on coating characteristics such as phase composition, structure and chemical composition and performance such as bioresorption, degradation and bone apposition. Variation in process parameters such as powder morphology can induce microstructural and mechanical inconsistencies that have an effect on the service performance of the coating. In order to reach some acceptable level of reliability, it may be necessary to control existing variability in commercially available HA feedstock. In addition, certain opposing factors severely constrain the means to achieve the necessary coating conditions via thermal spraying alone; therefore, creating the need to introduce other innovative or secondary treatment stages to attain the desired results. This paper highlights some of the problems associated with plasma spray coating of HA and suggests that tailoring the powder feedstock morphology and properties through suitable conditioning processes can aid the deposition efficiency and produce an acceptable coating structure.

In vitro studies of plasma-sprayed hydroxyapatite/Ti-6Al-4V composite coatings in simulated body fluid (SBF)

The bioactivity of plasma-sprayed hydroxyapatite (HA)/Ti-6Al-4V composite coatings was studied by soaking the coatings in simulated body fluid (SBF) for up to 8 weeks. This investigation was aimed at elucidating the biological behaviour of plasma-sprayed HA/Ti-6Al-4V composite coatings by analyzing the changes in chemistry, and crystallinity of the composite coating in a body-analogous solution. Phase composition, microstructure and calcium ion concentration were analyzed before, and after immersion. The mechanical properties, such as tensile bond strength, microhardness and Youngs modulus were appropriately measured. Results demonstrated that the tensile bond strength of the composite coating was significantly higher than that of pure HA coatings even after soaking in the SBF solution over an 8-weeks period. Dissolution of Ca-P phases in SBF was evident after 24h of soaking, and, a layer of carbonate-apatite covered the coating surface after 2 weeks of immersion. The mechanical properties were found to diminish with soaking duration. However, slight variation in mechanical properties was found after supersaturation of the calcium ions was attained with the precipitation of the calcium phosphate layers.

Spark plasma sintering of hydroxyapatite powders

Dense hydroxyapatite (HA) compacts have been successfully fabricated by a spark plasma sintering (SPS). The sintering behavior of HA powders at different temperatures ranging from 850 degrees C to 1100 degrees C was studied. Results showed that spark plasma sintering resulted in rapid densification to near theoretical density. The HA compact was homogeneously sintered at 950 degrees C in a short sintering duration of 5 min, while maintaining high quality and high relative density (>99.5%). The density, microhardness and Youngs modulus of HA sintered compact initially increased with the sintering temperature, reached a maximum value at around 950-1000 degrees C, then decreased with further increase in the temperature due to the decomposition of HA into beta-tricalcium phosphates. Fracture toughness results showed no significant difference with increasing temperature due to the combined influences of density and grain size. Microstructure analysis showed no noticeable grain growth under different sintering temperatures due to the short time exposure at high temperatures.

Plasma-sprayed hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings with flame-spheroidized feedstock: microstructure and mechanical properties

Flame-spheroidized feedstock, with excellent known heat transfer and consistent melting capabilities, were used to produce hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings via plasma spraying. The characteristics and inherent mechanical properties of the coatings have been investigated and were found to have direct and impacting relationship with the feedstock characteristics, processing parameters as well as microstructural deformities. Processing parameters such as particle sizes (SHA: 20-45, 45-75 and 75-125 microm) and spray distances (10, 12 and 14 cm) have been systematically varied in the present study. It was found that the increase of particle sizes and spray distances weakened the mechanical properties (microhardness, modulus, fracture toughness and bond strength) and structural stability of the coatings. The presence of inter- and intralamellar thermal microcracks, voids and porosities with limited true contact between lamellae were also found to degrade the mechanical characteristics of the coatings, especially in coatings produced from large-sized HA particles. An effort was made to correlate the effects of microstructural defects with the resultant mechanical properties and structural integrity of the plasma-sprayed hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings. The effects of different heat treatment temperatures (600, 800 and 900 degrees C) on the mechanical properties of the coatings were also studied. It was found that a heat treatment temperature of 800 degrees C does enhance the microhardness and elastic modulus of the coatings significantly (P < 0.05) whereas a further increment in heat treatment temperature to 900 degrees C did not show any discernable improvements (P > 0.1). The elastic response behaviour and fracture toughness of both the as-sprayed and heat-treated HA coatings using Knoop and Vickers indentations at different loadings have been investigated. Results have shown that the mechanical properties of the coatings have improved significantly despite increasing crack density after heat treatment in air. Coatings produced from the spheroidized feedstock of 20-45 microm (SHA 20-45 microm) sprayed at a stand-off distance of 10 cm were found to possess the most favourable mechanical properties.

An in vitro investigation of plasma sprayed hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings produced with flame-spheroidized feedstock

The in vitro behaviour and characteristics of plasma sprayed hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings using flame-spheroidized HA feedstock powder on titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) substrates were investigated in a simulated physiological environment as an attempt to reflect the actual incubational condition of an implant in a human body system. As-sprayed and heat-treated HA coatings were immersed in a simulated body fluid with ionic concentrations comparable to that of human blood plasma for time intervals 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 weeks. Rapid dissolution of calcium phosphate was found to occur within the first 4 weeks, and after the 5th week a retarding rate of 4.1 mM week(-1) was observed where precipitation, nucleation, and, growth of a carbonate-containing, poorly crystallized or amorphous calcium phosphate layer on the as-sprayed coatings were noted. The heat-treated coatings showed minimal or no precipitation on the surface except for the presence of calcite minerals that is due to carbonation effect. Complete dissolution of other calcium phosphate phases such as tetracalcium phosphate, tricalcium phosphate and calcium oxide was also noted after 2 weeks of immersion due to higher ionic solubility relative to HA. A declining trend in respective microhardness and elastic modulus of the as-sprayed HA coatings from 207.06 +/- 3.2 H(k300) to 131.8 +/- 5.2 H(k300) and from 31.37 +/- 1.4 to 19.81 +/- 1.6 GPa was observed after 10 weeks of immersion. Tensile bond strength of both types of coatings showed similar declining trend, with an average dip from 24.5 +/- 2.4 to 7.9 +/- 2.6 MPa. Nevertheless. the heat-treated samples showed rather reasonable mechanical stability and structural integrity of 26.7 +/-1.4 GPa in elastic modulus after soaking.

Mechanical properties of injection molded hydroxyapatite-polyetheretherketone biocomposites

Abstract Bioactive composites comprising synthetic hydroxyapatite (HA) particulate and semi-crystalline polyetheretherketone (PEEK) polymer were produced for biomedical application. HA particulates were incorporated into PEEK polymer matrix through a series of processing stages involving melt compounding, granulating and injection molding. This investigation presents the processing route employed and the mechanical properties of HA–PEEK composites. In general, Youngs modulus, compressive strength and micro indentation hardness increased with increasing amount of HA particulate. On the other hand, tensile strength and strain to failure decreased with increasing HA loading. The tensile strength and Youngs modulus of HA–PEEK composites were found to be within the bounds of bony tissue. These results suggest that the bioactive HA–PEEK composites have the potential for use as an alternative material for load-bearing orthopedic application.

Matrix metalloproteinase 1 is necessary for the migration of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells toward human glioma.

Human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have increasingly been used as cellular vectors for the delivery of therapeutic genes to tumors. However, the precise mechanism of mobilization remains poorly defined. In this study, MSCs that expressed similar cell surface markers and exhibited multilineage differentiation potentials were isolated from various donors. Interestingly, different MSC isolates displayed differential migration ability toward human glioma cells. We hypothesized that distinct molecular signals may be involved in the varied tumor tropisms exhibited by different MSC isolates. To test this hypothesis, gene expression profiles of tumor‐trophic MSCs were compared with those of non–tumor‐trophic MSCs. Among the various differentially regulated genes, matrix metalloproteinase one (MMP1) gene expression and its protein activities were enhanced by 27‐fold and 21‐fold, respectively, in highly migrating MSCs compared with poorly migrating MSCs. By contrast, there was no change in the transcriptional levels of other MMPs. Functional inactivation of MMP1 abrogated the migratory potential of MSCs toward glioma‐conditioned medium. Conversely, the nonmigratory phenotype of poorly migrating MSC could be rescued in the presence of either recombinant MMP1 or conditioned medium from the highly migrating MSCs. Ectopic expression of MMP1 in these poorly migrating cells also rendered the cells responsive to the signaling cues from the glioma cells in vivo. However, blocking the interaction of MMP1 and its cognate receptor PAR1 effectively diminished the migratory ability of MSCs. Taken together, this study provides, for the first time, supporting evidence that MMP1 is critically involved in the migration capacity of MSCs, acting through the MMP1/PAR1 axis. STEM CELLS 2009;27:1366–1375

Plasma spraying of functionally graded hydroxyapatite/Ti–6Al–4V coatings

Abstract Functionally graded hydroxyapatite (HA)/Ti–6Al–4V coatings were produced by plasma spray process using specially developed HA-coated Ti–6Al–4V composite powders as feedstock. The microstructure, density, porosity, microhardness, and Youngs modulus ( E ) were found to change progressively through the three-layered functionally graded coating that composed of the layers 50 wt.% HA/50 wt.% Ti–6Al–4V; 80 wt.% HA/20 wt.% Ti–6Al–4V, and HA. No distinct interface between adjacent layers of different compositions was evident from scanning electron microscope observation. X-ray diffractometry showed that the coatings composed of HA and Ti phases. Microhardness, as measured through the indentation technique, and tensile adhesion strength decreased correspondingly with increasing HA content in the single-layered composite coatings. The application of HA/Ti–6Al–4V composite powders improved the tensile adhesion strength of the coatings significantly. The Youngs modulus and fracture toughness results showed highly anisotropic elastic behavior with relatively higher E and K IC (fracture toughness) values parallel to the coating surface due to the intrinsic lamellar structure of the plasma sprayed coatings.