P. J. Scholl

The oestrid flies: biology, host-parasite relationships, impact and management.

Introduction, D D Colwell, M J R Hall and P J Scholl Historical Perspectives on the Importance and Impact of Oestrids, R A Roncalli, Milltown, USA Phylogeny and Evolution of the Bot Flies, T Pape, Zoological Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark Molecular Phylogeny and Identification, D Otranto, University of Bari, Italy and J R Stevens, University of Exeter, UK Life Cycle Strategles, D D Colwell Morphology of Adult Oestridae, D M Wood, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Egg Morphology, D D Colwell Larval Morphology, D D Colwell Pupal Biology and Metamorphosis Behaviour, A C Nilssen, Tromso Museum, Norway Adult Biology, J R Anderson, Bend, USA Larval - Host Parasite Relationships, C Boulard, INRA, France, E Lello, Botucatu, Brazil, D Colwell and P Dorchies, Ecole Nationale Veterinaire de Toulouse, France Oestrid Myiasis of Humans, J R Anderson Management and Control of Oestrid Flies, P J Scholl A Synopsis of the Biology, Hosts, Distribution, Disease, D D Colwell, M J R Hall and P J Scholl.

Nasal bots… a fascinating world!

Larvae causing obligatory myiasis are numerous and they may affect cutaneous and subcutaneous tissues, wounds, nasopharyngeal cavities (nasal bots), internal organs and the digestive tract (bots) of domestic and wild animals and humans as well. Nasal bots belong to the Family Oestridae, Subfamily Oestrinae, which includes several important genera: Oestrus, Kirkioestrus, and Gedoelstia infecting Artiodactyla (except Cervidae) in Africa and Eurasia, Cephenemyia and Pharyngomyia infecting Cervidae, Rhinoestrus infecting horses, Cephalopina infecting camels, Pharyngobolus infecting African elephants, and Tracheomyia infecting Australian kangaroos. Nasal bots are widespread in Mediterranean and tropical areas and in affected animals they induce sneezing and nasal discharge which may become caked with dust making breathing very difficult. The aforementioned species of larvae are host-specific but sometimes the may be deposited in human eyes inducing a painful opthalmomyiasis of short duration. The first fascinating trait of these parasites is the very efficient morphological and biological adaptations to parasitism they show either as larvae or as adults, in order to facilitate their survival and search for a suitable host. Nasal bots have reached different degrees of complexity in their life cycles. Indeed, while for some species (e.g., Oestrus ovis, Rhinoestrus usbekistanicus) larvae are injected by flies directly into nostrils and develop in the sinuses before being ejected for external pupation, some other species migrate from eyes to blood before returning to nasal cavities either through the ethmoid bone (Gedoelstia hässleri) or via lungs and bronchi (Gedoelstia cristata). Moreover, larvae are very well-adapted to their environment being able to undergo through hypobiosis either inside or outside the host, according to the climatic environmental conditions and seasonality. The second fascinating trait of nasal bots is related to host behavioural and immune responses against the infection. Host behaviour may in fact prevent larviposition and inflammatory/immune reactions limit larval development. The main pathophysiological mechanisms involve mast cells and eosinophils which destroy the larvae in sensitized animals. The intense eosinophilic reaction has side effects both locally (i.e. on the nasal mucosa) and also generally, with possible interactions with gastrointestinal strongyles (e.g., both worm burdens and fecundity decreased in lambs infected by O. ovis). Infected animals (e.g., sheep, goat, camel, and donkey) firstly suffer from fly strike, when adult flies inject first stage larvae on nostrils: sheep may try to avoid fly swarms but eventually Rangifer tarandus can only manage a terror-stricken look! Secondly, hosts will suffer from myiasis with typical nasal discharge and sneezing related to sinusitis. Clinical manifestations may vary: for example O. ovis induces severe clinical signs in sheep whilst produces few effects in goats! These parasites are diffused in many Mediterranean and tropical countries. Unfortunately, it is commonly believed that bacterial infections induced by nasal bots are of greater clinical importance: this view is not substantiated and the control of this condition depends on treatment with macrocyclic lactones, closantel and nitroxynil. Reinfections are common, and controlling nasal bots is not so simple.