P.K. Kaiser

Estimation of rock mass deformation modulus and strength of jointed hard rock masses using the GSI system

Abstract Rock mass characterization is required for many applications in rock engineering practice including excavation design, support design, stope design, amongst others. For these purposes, it is necessary to obtain design input parameters such as deformation moduli and strength parameters for numerical modeling. Although such parameters can ultimately be determined from in situ tests, at the preliminary design stage, where access to underground is limited, the practical way to obtain these parameters is to apply a rock mass classification system to characterize the rock mass and estimate the rock mass properties. Over the years, many classification systems, such as RQD, Rock Mass Rating, Q and Geological Strength Index (GSI) systems, have been developed. Amongst them, the Q system is widely used for rock support system design and the GSI system is used for estimating design parameters. The GSI system is the only rock mass classification system that is directly linked to engineering parameters such as Mohr–Coulomb, Hoek–Brown strength parameters or rock mass modulus. However, the application of the existing GSI system is hindered by the facts that the use of the system is to some extent subjective and requires long-term experience. In the present study, a quantitative approach to assist in the use of the GSI system is presented. It employs the block volume and a joint condition factor as quantitative characterization factors. The approach is built on the linkage between descriptive geological terms and measurable field parameters such as joint spacing and joint roughness. The newly developed approach adds quantitative means to facilitate use of the system, especially by inexperienced engineers. The GSI system is applied to characterize the jointed rock masses at two underground powerhouse cavern sites in Japan. GSI values are obtained from block volume and joint condition factor, which in turn are determined from site construction documents and field mapping data. Based on GSI values and intact rock strength properties, equivalent Mohr–Coulomb strength parameters and elastic modulus of the jointed rock mass are calculated and compared to in situ test results. The point estimate method is implemented to approximate the mean and variance of the mechanical properties of the jointed rock masses. It is seen that both the means and variances of strength and deformation parameters predicted from the GSI system are in good agreement with field test data.

Modelling brittle failure of rock

Abstract Observations of brittle failure at the laboratory scale indicate that the brittle failure process involves the initiation, growth, and accumulation of micro-cracks. Around underground openings, observations have revealed that brittle failure is mainly a process of progressive slabbing resulting in a revised stable geometry that in many cases take the form of V-shaped notches. Continuum models with traditional failure criteria (e.g. Hoek–Brown or Mohr–Coulomb) based on the simultaneous mobilization of cohesive and frictional strength components have not been successful in predicting the extent and depth of brittle failure. This paper presents a continuum modelling approach that captures an essential component of brittle rock mass failure, that is, cohesion weakening and frictional strengthening (CWFS) as function of rock damage or plastic strain.

Numerical Simulation of Cumulative Damage and Seismic Energy Release During Brittle Rock Failure—Part I: Fundamentals

Abstract This paper presents a numerical approach for the simulation of damage initiation and propagation causing seismic energy release during unstable failure of brittle rock. With a newly developed numerical code, RFPA2D (Rock Failure Process Analysis), the progressive failure process leading to the development of a shear or fault zone, and the eventual collapse of a heterogeneous rock sample is modeled. Since the constitutive law for each element in the model is elastic–brittle, seismic energy is radiated whenever an element fails. It is assumed that the radiated energy is equal to the energy stored in the element before failure is triggered. Due to the heterogeneity of rock properties, seismic quiescence may occasionally occur within the nucleation zone. The cumulative seismic damage calculated based on the seismic event rate from the simulation can be used as a damage parameter to describe the damage evolution. It was found that significant decreases followed by sudden increases in radiated seismic energy may be an indicator of potentially unstable nucleation.

Quantification of rock mass damage in underground excavations from microseismic event monitoring

Abstract Rock mass damage assessment is required for many applications in rock engineering practice including support design, contamination transport control, stope design, amongst others. While various methods such as displacement measurement, seismic refraction, and direct observation using borehole camera have been used, relatively few efforts have been made to use microseismic monitoring to quantify the rock mass damage. From laboratory tests, it is well known that microseismic events are indicators of fracturing or rock damage as the rock mass is brought to failure at high stress. By capturing the microseismic events, underground excavation induced rock mass degradation or damage can be located but can the amount of damage in terms of changes to strength or deformation properties be measured? In the present study, a method of characterizing rock mass damage near excavations based on microseismic event monitoring is developed and a damage-driven numerical model is presented that takes the microseismic data as input to determine the damage state described by fracture density. The approach is built on the discovery that a realistic crack size corresponding to a seismic event can be established by applying a tensile cracking model instead of the traditional shear model, commonly used in earthquake analysis. The rock mass is softened by the introduction of cracks and this is simulated by a micro-mechanics based constitutive model. The material property input for the model are Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio of the intact rock, and information obtained from the monitoring of microseismic events such as the location and the source size of each event calculated from source parameters. Using data from the Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Mine-by Experiment, this model has been verified by investigating the linkage between microseismicity, rock mass damage and ground deformation. It is found that when damage related softening based on microseismic data is considered, predicted rock mass displacements are in good agreement with extensometer measurements.

Brittleness of rock and stability assessment in hard rock tunneling

Abstract Brittleness is a characteristic of many geomaterials in which the pre-existing heterogeneities among the mechanical and geometrical properties of the constituent materials, (e.g. grains cementing materials and voids) and loading conditions promote non-homogeneous distribution of the stresses inside the failing mass and eventually along the potential failure plane. This study relates the brittleness of failing hard rocks and tunnels to a strain-dependent brittleness index ( I B e ) which characterizes the entire failure process of rock (pre- to post-peak), and accounts for the involved mechanisms in inducing inelastic strains (damage) inside the failing rock. The strain-dependent brittleness of rock dictates the mobilized strength around underground excavations, affects their short- and long-term stability, and determines the shape of breakout (failed or inelastic) zone. The ground-support pressure interaction mechanism is also affected by rock brittleness. Brittleness of rock is a time- (loading rate) and size- (geometry) dependent property.

Stress, instability and design of underground excavations

When the stress-induced risks to a projects warrant it, in situ stress must be measured. However, as the stress-induced risks increase, i.e., the stress magnitudes approach the rock mass strength, the confidence in commonly used stress measurement techniques decrease. The design of underground openings at depth requires knowledge of the in situ stress state, yet it is for these design conditions where our confidence in stress measurement techniques is at its lowest. To quantify the stress state for these conditions, elements of the Observational Design Method have to be used. These elements rely on the development of a geological site model, documented observations of over stressed rock in pillars or near the boundary of underground openings, and iterative two- and three-dimensional numerical modelling calibrated with observations. Examples are provided to illustrate how the philosophy of Observational Design Method can be used to infer the in situ stress state.

Stability of large excavations in laminated hard rock masses: the voussoir analogue revisited

Abstract The voussoir beam analogue has provided a useful stability assessment tool for more than 55 years and has seen numerous improvements and revisions over the years. In this paper, a simplified and robust iterative algorithm is presented for this model. This approach includes an improved assumption for internal compression arch geometry, simplified displacement determination, support pressure and surcharge analysis and a corrected stabilizing moment in the two dimensional case. A discrete element simulation is used to verify these enhancements and to confirm traditional assumptions inherent in the model. In the case of beam snap-through failure, dominant in hard rock excavations of moderately large span, design criteria are traditionally based on a stability limit which represents an upper bound for stable span estimates. A deflection threshold has been identified and verified through field evidence, which corresponds to the onset of non-linear deformation behaviour and therefore, of initial instability. This threshold is proposed as a more reasonable stability limit for this failure mode in rockmasses and particularly for data limited cases. Design charts, based on this linearity limit for unsupported stability of jointed rock beams, are presented here summarizing critical span–thickness–modulus relationships.

Design of rock support system under rockburst condition

As mining and civil tunneling progresses to depth, excavation-induced seismicity and rockburst problems increase and cannot be prevented. As an important line of defense, ground control measures and burst-resistant rock support are used to prevent or minimize damage to excavations and thus to enhance workplace safety. Rock support in burst-prone ground differs from conventional rock support where controlling gravity-induced rockfalls and managing shallow zones of loose rock are the main target. Rock support in burst-prone ground needs to resist dynamic loads and large rock dilation due to violent rock failure. After reviewing the rockburst phenomenon, types of rockbursts, damage mechanisms, and rockburst support design principles and acceptability criteria, this paper describes that the support selection process in burst-prone ground is iterative, requiring design verification and modification based on field observations. An interactive design tool for conducting rockburst support design in underground tunnels is introduced to facilitate cost-effective design.

Mining-induced stress change and consequences of stress path on excavation stability — a case study

Abstract For stability assessments as well as for support design, it is important to understand the factors leading to detrimental stress changes. Stress changes not only influence the demand on the rock support, they also change the support capacity of frictional support components such as plain cablebolts. Stress and stress changes are commonly predicted by numerical models but it is rarely possible to verify these predictions. This study presents a practical example illustrating the usefulness of stress change measurements in providing an accurate picture of the mining-induced stress changes and their value for numerical model calibration. Stress changes, associated with mining of the 565#6 stope at Winston Lake Mine, were measured by four CSIRO HI stress cells, two in the hangingwall and two in the back of a sill drift. In order to obtain the full stress history of the hangingwall, stresses at the installation time were calculated by use of a three-dimensional boundary element program — MAP3D. Two types of rockmass failure were observed at this mine: hangingwall delamination and collapse leading to ore dilution, and wedge-like failures in the backs of sill drifts. All stress cells were located such that they were affected by these failure mechanisms. Using measured and predicted stress paths, this study explains the nature of these two failure modes, as experienced at Winston Lake Mine. Excellent correspondence between measured and predicted stresses is achieved for both the hangingwall and the back of the sill drifts. Modelled stress rotations in the hangingwall follow closely the stress rotations determined in the field, except at the end of the monitoring campaign when the stress cells were affected by inelastic straining of the host rock. These measurements assist in understanding the failure processes and in defining the limitations of the adopted numerical models.

A Tensile Model for the Interpretation of Microseismic Events near Underground Openings

For small-scale microseismic events, the source sizes provided by shear models are unrealistically large when compared to visual observations of rock fractures near underground openings. A detailed analysis of the energy components in data from a mine-by experiment and from some mines showed that there is a depletion of S-wave energy for events close to the excavations, indicating that tensile cracking is the dominant mechanism in these microseismic events.