P. Marinos

Upper Holocene sea-level changes: Paleogeographic evolution and its impact on coastal archaeological sites and monuments

The paper presents the evolution of the geographic environment imposed by sea-level changes in selected sites of the Aegean Sea region during the Upper Holocene. The changes are due, mainly, to paroxysmic phases of the actual neotectonic evolution and to differential—in time and space—block movements, and emerged or submerged coasts. The reconstitution of these coasts is presented and, in some cases, natural harbor morphology is revealed. The use and evolution of these sites is discussed. Other sites concern coastal or inland ancient settlements or constructions affected by submersion by the sea, by the rise of the groundwater table, or by uplift movements. A general discussion on engineering measures to be applied for protection of the antiquities affected by these geographic changes closes the presentation.

Landslide hazard, monitoring and conservation strategy for the safeguard of Vardzia Byzantine monastery complex, Georgia

This paper reports preliminary results of a feasibility project developed in cooperation with National Agency for Cultural Heritage Preservation of Georgia, and aimed at envisaging the stability conditions of the Vardzia monastery slope (rupestrian city cave in the south-western Georgia). The aim is the implementation of a low-impact monitoring system together with long-term mitigation/conservation policies. A field analysis was conducted to reconstruct geometry of the rocky cliff, characteristics of discontinuities, main failure modes, and volume of potential unstable blocks and geomechanical parameters. Instability processes are the combination of causative factors such as the following: lithology, frequency and orientation of discontinuities, slope orientation, physical and mechanical characteristics of slope-forming materials, and morphological and hydrological boundary conditions. The combined adoption of different survey techniques (e.g., 3D laser scanner, ground-based radar interferometry) could be the best solution in the interdisciplinary field of cultural heritage preservation policies. The collected data will be the basis for future activities to be completed in collaboration with local authorities for a complete hazard and risk characterization for the monastery site and the development of an early warning system to allow safe exploitation for touristic activities and for historical site preservation.

Water resources assessment and management of karst aquifer systems in Greece

Groundwater resources of karst aquifers within Circum-Mediterranean are a vital natural resource, which have been exploited since the dawn of the Mediterranean civilization. In Greece, carbonate formations are thought to be one of the most important sources for various water uses, that are vital for the country’s economy and development, that is agriculture and water supply. In most cases, they are considered as integral parts of some of the most strategic hydrosystems in Greece, containing surface water and groundwater resources that secure water supply for several anthropogenic activities. This paper provides a review of different aquifer types in Greece (granular and karstic), focusing on karst hydrosystems. It presents their spatial distribution throughout the entire Greek territory, and describes the most important environmental stresses upon them, while it analyzes their importance and role to the country’s water supply. Finally, this study analyzes the river basin of (Central Greece), used as a reference hydrosystem, to prove the ample importance of karst reservoirs in Greece.

Ground zoning against seismic hazard in Athens, Greece

Abstract The 1999, Ms=5.9, Athens earthquake caused serious structural damage to buildings in the western part of Athens, Greece. This paper presents the ground zoning against seismic hazard proposed shortly after the earthquake in order to aid reconstruction of the area. Existing engineering geological and geotechnical data were combined with local observations to provide a unified set of classification criteria, consistent with provisions of the Greek Seismic Code EAK. The accuracy and the possible limitations of this zoning procedure are addressed through comparison with observed damage distribution as well as results from seismic ground response analyses performed at sites with well established soil profiles. There is clear evidence that the proposed zones correspond to geological formations exhibiting grossly different seismic response with regard to the design of common engineering structures. However, the mostly qualitative nature of the guidelines for ground categorisation provided by EAK and the general lack of systematic, site-specific geotechnical data for the whole area induce uncertainties in the definition of the seismic design actions for the different zones. These objective uncertainties certainly demand increased conservatism but do not limit application of the proposed methodology for first aid, preliminary planning in the event of destructive earthquakes.

The Archaeological Site of Delphi, Greece: a Site Vulnerable to Earthquakes, Rockfalls and Landslides

Seismotectonic activity and slope instability are a permanent threat to the archaeological site of Delphi and the nearby Arachova Center of winter sports in central Greece. In this paper the geological conditions as well as the major active faults of the broader area are presented and discussed, with emphasis on the stability of the limestone cliffs above the Delphi archaeological site. The archaeological site is located in a complicated geological environment, while the steep rock slopes overhanging the Delphi monuments are intensively fractured. These unfavorable conditions cause deformation, displacements, rotations and partial destruction of the monuments, triggered mainly by seismic events. Protection measures are proposed, taking in to account that any construction must not disturb the view of the site. Any intervention must be preceded by detailed mapping of the rock joints and discontinuity planes as well as study of free and underground water drainage.

Engineering geology for society and territory – Volume 6: Applied geology for major engineering projects

Practitioners know that geotechnical uncertainty never ends until a tunnel is completed. In some cases, uncertainty extends into operation. The present note summarizes relevant project financing elements such as viability, risk allocation, and bankability. Main financial instruments for different project structures are outlined, highlighting their likely ranges of application. Two key instruments for managing project risks, the Geotechnical Baseline Report, and the Project Risk Register, are presented and their joint use illustrated. The importance of carrying over uncertainty along the entire project cycle (planning, construction, and operation) is elaborated by using a concept borrowed from the hydropower sector. 2.1 Project Sustainability Achieving project sustainability is a pre-requisite for financing, together with project’s technical and economical viability. A recurrent message is that “the project cannot be implemented because of lack of financing”. While that is true in several cases, it is equally true that, in many instances, financing could be available with good project preparation and a robust financial architecture. So what does it take to prepare a “good project”? Over the years, the threshold of environmental and social acceptability for large projects has significantly raised, and it would be very unwise to get financially involved in any operation where these aspects have not been fully addressed. A group of international financing institutions have set out minimum requirements for a project to be financed. These principles, referred to as the “Equator Principles,” were first designed in 2003 in conjunction with the International Finance Corporation (IFC—the private sector arm of the World Bank); the most recent version is dated June 2013 (for details see www.equator-principles.com). 2.2 Financial Viability Government decision-making is based on the economic value of a project to a nation, but the financing of that project depends on its financial viability. Financial viability is the measure of the commercial strength of a project, generally assessed over a period of 15–20 years. It determines whether the project is robust enough to repay loans at commercial rates of interest even under a downside scenario, and whether it is likely to provide a sufficiently high return on equity to attract private investors. Water infrastructure projects often fall in the gap between economic and financial viability. A project can be economically attractive and represent the preferred option when seen from a long-term national perspective, but when considered as a commercial investment it may be unable to generate adequate financial returns. Xiaolangdi Multipurpose Project represents a relevant example (Table 2.1). The content of this paper reflects the experience of the author and, as such, does not necessarily represent policies or practices of the SaliniImpregilo Group. A. Palmieri (&) Salini-Impregilo SpA, Milan, Italy G. Lollino et al. (eds.), Engineering Geology for Society and Territory – Volume 6, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-09060-3_2,

Landslide hazard assessment, monitoring and conservation of Vardzia monastery complex

Cultural heritage represents the legacy of human being to the planet earth. It is the evidence of 1,000 years of past generation evolution, to adapt our living condition to environment. Cultural heritage can be intangible (e.g. tradition, custom) and tangible, the latter including various physical objects, from historic landscapes and human transformed landscapes to sacred sites, archaeological sites, monumental sculpture, monumental painting, architecture and town planning. The above sites and remains are clearly not in equilibrium with environment. They are continuously impacted and weathered by several internal and external factors, both natural and human, with rapid and slow onset. Natural hazards are a clear example of such factors as well as long term weathering decay of rocks, until the effect of climate change, without disregarding the role of men, especially in war areas. In this context, an essential role on conservation and management of cultural properties has been identified by engineering geology and earth science in general. This approach was not very evident in the past, and now more attention to the integration of different sciences is demanded. Indeed, it is possible to affirm that the protection of the cultural heritage represents an interdisciplinary process (and not multi-disciplinary) at the border-line among art, history, science, policies for management and exploitation. In recent decades, many significant sites of cultural heritage have suffered damage, occasionally irreversible, from natural processes. This paper is presenting some case studies developed by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to protect and maintain important cultural heritage sites and historic urban landscapes, mainly in Country of the world recently involved in military conflicts or requiring international assistance and cooperation due to the dimension of the disaster or the relevance of threatened monument.The rock-cut city of Vardzia is a cave monastery site in south-western Georgia, excavated from the slopes of the Erusheti mountain on the left bank of the Mtkvari River. The main period of construction was the second half of the twelfth century. The caves stretch along the cliff for some eight hundred meters and up to fifty meters within the rocky wall. The monastery consists of more than six hundred hidden rooms spread over thirteen floors, which made possible to protect the monastery from the Mongol domination. The site was largely abandoned after the Ottoman takeover in the sixteenth century. The site is by the time affected by frequent slope instability processes along the entire volcanic tuff facade of the slope. Due to this phenomena the National Agency for Cultural Heritage Preservation of Georgia (NACHPG) has promoted, with the support of ISPRA, a landslide hazard assessment for the entire area through rock mechanics characterization, geotechnical engineering survey, geostructural and kinematic analysis, slope stability model, 3D laser scanner acquisitions and elaborations, and a real time monitoring system (GB_Radar interferometry) for the identification of deformation path of the most hazardous areas. A field analysis was conducted to reconstruct geometry of the rocky cliff, characteristics of discontinuities, main failure modes and volume of potential unstable blocks and geomechanical parameters.

Building stones and geological environment in three ancient cities of Aegean Thrace, Greece

The type, use, and size of the structural stones employed in three ancient cities of the Aegean Thrace are considered Abdera, Maroneia, and Mesimbria. The impact of the geological environment on the choice of these materials also is examined. From the results obtained it is implied that despite the great variety of rocks exposed in the area, the rocks used in construction in these cities are mostly types of sandstone and limestone, rocks with moderate technical properties and easily obtained from the area. The quarries were within a radius of less than 10 km and the size distribution of the building stones in all towns is discussed.

A Large Scale Landslide in a Coal Mine in Marly Formations: Evaluation, Analysis and Rehabilitation

The paper describes a large scale landslide in a coal mine in Servia area in Kozani, Greece, which occurred on February 2011. The landslide, of ~250m width and ~350m length, took place within marly lacustrine sediments. The main factors for the manifestation of the landslide were a temporary stoppage of works, the existence of a specific weak surface, the clayey nature and the sensitivity of marl to environmental agents, the action of water and the large slope height. Due to the magnitude and the position of the failure, a purely geotechnical solution was proposed that involved rearrangement of ground masses. The proposed solution led to successful rehabilitation and unimpeded continuation of the exploitation process.

Landslide hazard assessment, monitoring and conservation of vardzia monastery complex

The rock-cut city of Vardzia is a cave monastery site in south-western Georgia, excavated from the slopes of the Erusheti mountain on the left bank of the Mtkvari River. The main period of construction was the second half of the twelfth century. The caves stretch along the cliff for some eight hundred meters and up to fifty meters within the rocky wall. The monastery consists of more than six hundred hidden rooms spread over thirteen floors, which made possible to protect the monastery from the Mongol domination. The site was largely abandoned after the Ottoman takeover in the sixteenth century. The site is by the time affected by frequent slope instability processes along the entire volcanic tuff facade of the slope. Due to this phenomena the National Agency for Cultural Heritage Preservation of Georgia (NACHPG) has promoted, with the support of ISPRA, a landslide hazard assessment for the entire area through rock mechanics characterization, geotechnical engineering survey, geo-structural and kinematic analysis, slope stability model, 3D laser scanner acquisitions and elaborations, and a real time monitoring system (GB_Radar interferometry) for the identification of deformation path of the most hazardous areas. A field analysis was conducted to reconstruct geometry of the rocky cliff, characteristics of discontinuities, main failure modes and volume of potential unstable blocks and geomechanical parameters.