P. Pachiappan

Advances in Marine and Brackishwater Aquaculture

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Intensive Indoor and Outdoor Pilot-Scale Culture of Marine Copepods

Copepods are more abundant than any other group of multicellular animals, including the hyper-abundant insects and nematodes. They consume phytoplankton and microorganisms, and they are in preyed upon by higher trophic levels, animals including fish and whales. In particular, they serve as primary prey for the larval stages of many fish species of economic importance. In aquaculture, copepods have been proven to be the much preferred and most adequate food for many marine fish larvae (Houde 1973; May et al. 1974; Kraul 1983, 1989, 1993) and are also used for the shrimp larvae (Shamsudin and Saad 1993). Good fish productivity of an aquatic ecosystem is related to the presence of copepods and their role as the main food component (May 1970; Bent 1993). The larvae of many marine fish require prey with size of about 50–100 μm wide at their first feeding stage (Detwyler and Houde 1970; Yufera and Pascual 1984). Even the rotifer of type “S” is too large in many cases (Houde 1973; May et al. 1974; Doi and Singhagraiwan 1993). The results concerning first feeding of commercially important fish on dry food organisms are encouraging (Fernandez-Diaz and Yufera 1997; Cahu and Zambonino Infante 2001). However, live feeds cannot always be substituted because of biochemical and behavioural constraints of the fish larvae (Drillet et al. 2006).

Isolation and Culture of Microalgae

Marine microalgae or phytoplankton are the floating microscopic unicellular plants of the seawater which are generally free living, pelagic with the size range of 2–20 μm. The important components of microalgae are the diatoms, dinoflagellates, green algae, blue-green algae, and coccolithophores. Most microalgae have got immense value as they are rich sources of essential fatty acids, pigments, amino acids, and vitamins. They play a critical role in the coastal aquaculture of fish, molluscs, shrimps, and oysters, especially to meet the nutritional requirement of the larvae as well as for bioencapsulation. It is an established fact that the success of any hatchery operation mainly depends on the availability of the basic food, the phytoplankton. The maintenance and supply of the required species at appropriate time form a major problem being encountered by the algal culturists. The procedure for the phytoplankton culture involves aspects such as the isolation of the required species, preparation of the suitable culture media, and maintenance of the culture in the laboratory scale, as well as large scale under controlled conditions of light, temperature, and aeration, and their constant supply to the aqua farmers in different phases of growth. A culture may be defined as an artificial environment in which the microalgae grow. The culture of phytoplankton is an important aspect of planktonology, and the mass culture of phytoplankton is achieved under laboratory-controlled conditions and under field/outdoor conditions. Under laboratory conditions, sterilized or thoroughly cleaned containers are filled with filtered/sterilized seawater (28–34‰) and enriched with the addition of fertilizers, i.e., Guillard and Ryther’s F medium, Walne’s medium, or TMRL medium. The culture containers are inoculated with pure strains of the desired phytoplankton previously cultured in the laboratory. They are provided with heavy aeration and light using aerators and fluorescent bulbs respectively in a controlled laboratory with temperature of 25 ± 2 °C. The exponential growth phase is generally observed in 36 h to 3 days after inoculation. Cell density of 1.5–4.5 million cells per ml could be recorded. As a sufficient quantity of phytoplankton inoculums usually is present in the coarsely filtered seawater when the nutrients are added, a phytoplankton bloom develops in a course of few days under substantial sunlight. However, it happens sometimes that diatom bloom is inhibited by lack of sunlight or due to the nature of seawater in the tank. In such cases, the addition of new seawater and/or addition of ferric chloride in small amounts may stimulate instant resumption of the diatom in culture.

An Introduction to Plankton

The word “plankton” is derived from the Greek word for drifting. Plankton are frequently described as organisms that drift on or near the surface of the water and are unable to swim sufficiently strongly to move toward tides, winds, or currents. This description is not strictly true, in that many planktonic organisms, even very small individuals, can propel themselves for very long distances in water columns in very short periods of time. Many planktonic organisms are single-celled plants, called phytoplankton, while others are single-celled animals, known as zooplankton. However, a few organisms referred to as plankton are the embryonic or juvenile forms of larger organisms, including fish and invertebrates. Planktonic organisms are inhabited in nearly all aquatic ecosystems and play a crucial role in aquatic food webs.

Methods of Collection, Preservation and Taxonomic Identification of Marine Phytoplankton

The term plankton was coined by Victor Hensen in 1887. And the word “plankton” was derived from the Greek word for drifting. They are often defined as organisms that float at or near the surface of the water and are unable to swim strong enough to go against tides, winds or currents. The phytoplankton is considered as basis of food chain in aquatic environment. Phytoplanktonic organisms are found in virtually all-aquatic ecosystems and play a very important role in aquatic food webs. The food chain originates with phytoplankton, and they serve a vital role as food for tiny zooplankton that exist in different aquatic systems. Phytoplankton are extremely important from the standpoint of monitoring water quality since they are the first group to respond to changes in nutrient conditions in an ecosystem. Being the base of the food chain, all higher trophic groups ultimately depend on them. The phytoplankton represents one of the world’s simplest and basic organisms. Furthermore, the phytoplankton is one of the forefront basal organisms in the food chain. This means that they are the source of food for most of the tiny organisms that start the web. The phytoplankton is considered to be a rich source of biofuel, feed, food and biofertilizers. It is evident that the phytoplankton removes the carbon very efficiently than terrestrial plants and thereby helps in controlling the global warming. It is just unbelievable how this small microorganism can contribute in so many different fields and improve the lives of people that need new medical treatments. In the course of time, phytoplankton will be recognized as one of the most important and yet subtle organisms that exist in this planet. But unfortunately the systematics and taxonomic identification of phytoplankton are still in critical phase. The number of people working on the taxonomy of phytoplankton is so meagre. In this context, this paper considered being an important one provides information on various techniques involving collection, preservation and morphological identification of some common phytoplankton.

A Method of Collection, Preservation and Identification of Marine Zooplankton

The name plankton originates from the Greek which means wandering or drifting. Victor Hensen coined the term ‘plankton’ in 1887. Plankton denotes a group of organisms—either animals or plants—which passively float and drift with the mercy of water currents, tides and waves. The animal component of the plankton is called zooplankton. It plays an important and probably the most significant role in aquatic productivity, determining the future commercial fishery of an area. They form a vital link in any aquatic food web as primary consumers or secondary producers.

A Method of Analysis of Pigments in Copepods

Pigmentation in the animals generally aids in the sexual attraction of partners or camouflage to reduce the risk of predation, but in some planktonic crustaceans, pigments are used as a guard against harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation (Hansson 2000). Pigments occur almost in all phyla of marine organisms (Goodwin 1976) and are widely present in the zooplankton and micronekton (Cheeseman et al. 1967; Herring 1972). There are so many reports on zooplankton pigmentation, in which most of them focused on crustaceans (Herring 1968; Hairston 1979; Castillo et al. 1982). In marine pelagic food webs, copepods are the major producers of astaxanthin. Firstly, the most important function of astaxanthin in copepods is that it is an antioxidant for protecting lipids from peroxidation. Secondly, pigmentation and thereby photo protection against UV light have been suggested. Thirdly, it could be that astaxanthin esters, since they are lipids, serve as sources of metabolic energy, even if they contribute to only 2% of the total lipid content of a copepod body. In this chapter, some of the common techniques used for the extraction and analysis of pigments in copepods are elaborated.

Study on Molecular Taxonomy and Phylogenetic Analysis of Phytoplankton

Microalgae, also known as phytoplankton, are abundant microorganisms, which originate in freshwater and marine atmospheres. Phytoplankton play a key role in bio-geochemistry, subsequently they yield the bulk of oxygen on earth through photosynthesis. Microalgae can produce high-value chemical products like carotenoids, antioxidants, fatty acids, and sterols. Microalgae can also be considered as an attractive raw material for biofuel production and CO2 sequestration. However, unfortunately the expertise and techniques available for taxonomic identification of microalgae using morphological characteristics are very scarce. This chapter dealt the latest research and newest approaches to study the taxonomy of these important organisms, as well as covering the modern method such as molecular taxonomy and phylogenetic analysis of phytoplankton. The chapter first deals with practical information on methods of isolation of genomic DNA and evolutionary analysis of phytoplankton, for different algal species. This could be an indispensable tool for anyone working in this field to learn more about these microorganisms.

Assessing the Efficacy of Marine Copepods as an Alternative First Feed for Larval Production of Tiger Shrimp Penaeus monodon

Intensive production of marine shrimp is mainly depending on live prey in rearing of the first feeding shrimp larval stages. Commonly rotifers and brine shrimps are the primary live feed for the shrimp, and commercial shrimp production has conventionally acclimatized with this. Because, commercial scale need fast growing and high reproductive rates live pray and they mainly depend on rotifers which fulfil all the requirements. At the same time, brine shrimp Artemia can be collected in nature and stored as cysts until needed. Regrettably, still marine larviculture faces an unbalanced live feed which contains low nutritional compositions, and it reflects in shrimp larval survival and their disease resistance capability. While there is a mass production of shrimp larvae, the high and fluctuating costs of Artemia push to find an alternative live prey such as copepods (Abate et al. 2015; Drillet et al. 2008).

Mass Scale Culture and Preparation of Microalgal Paste

For the past two decades, microalgae are cultured commercially for secondary wastewater treatment and production of human food, animal feed, fertilizer, biofuel, fine chemicals and secondary metabolites. But, success of mass culture of microalgae depends on bacteria and other contaminated cells. If it is efficient method to culture of microalgae in mass scale means, it should be contains higher biomass productivity, can grow in low light conditions and maximum utilization of carbon dioxide. In recent years, most of the world researchers focused on to develop sustainable outdoor mass scale culture techniques in low cost. Most outdoor culture techniques result in low algal density, high contamination, problem in harvesting and lipid separation from the algal cells. The low algal cell productivity of mass scale techniques has prompted the development of enriched outdoor mass culture methods like raceway, photobioreactors and attached algal culture system (Fig. 1). This chapter reveals the various techniques involving culture, havest and preparation of microalgae paste.