P. R. M. Jones

Three-dimensional surface anthropometry: Applications to the human body

Abstract Anthropometry is the study of the measurement of the human body. By tradition this has been carried out taking the measurements from body surface landmarks, such as circumferences and breadths, using simple instruments like tape measures and calipers. Three-dimensional (3D) surface anthropometry enables us to extend the study to 3D geometry and morphology of mainly external human body tissues. It includes the acquisition, indexing, transmission, archiving, retrieval, interrogation and analysis of body size, shape, and surface together with their variability throughout growth and development to adulthood. While 3D surface anthropometry surveying is relatively new, anthropometric surveying using traditional tools, such as calipers and tape measures, is not. Recorded studies of the human form date back to ancient times. Since at least the 17th century 1 investigators have made attempts to measure the human body for physical properties such as weight, size, and centre of mass. Martin documented ‘standard’ body measurement methods in a handbook in 1928. 2 This paper reviews the past and current literature devoted to the applications of 3D anthropometry because true 3D scanning of the complete human body is fast becoming a reality. We attempt to take readers through different forms of technology which deal with simple forms of projected light to the more complex advanced forms of laser and video technology giving low and/or high resolution 3D data. Information is also given about image capture of size and shape of the whole as well as most component parts of the human body. In particular, the review describes with explanations a multitude of applications, for example, medical, product design, human engineering, anthropometry and ergonomics etc.

Influence of Brisk Walking on the Broadband Ultrasonic Attenuation of the Calcaneus in Previously Sedentary Women Aged 30-61 Years

SummaryThe amount and type of exercise needed to maintain or increase bone density in women is unclear. The purpose of the present study was to examine the influence of brisk walking on broadband ultrasonic attenuation (BUA) values for the calcaneus in formerly sedentary women aged 30–61 years (mean 44). Twenty-five women followed the program of brisk walking for 1 year and 15 acted as controls. The walkers completed an average (SEM) of 159 (46) minutes/week of brisk walking at a speed of 1.72 (0.05) meters/second, i.e., about 16–18 km/week. Broadband ultrasonic attenuation was determined at baseline and after 1 year. Analysis of variance showed that values were increased (P<0.05) for the walkers relative to controls [walkers 103.3 (4.9) versus 116.1 (3.8) dB/MHz; controls 103.6 (5.5) versus 99.6 (5.4) dB/MHz]. We conclude that, in formerly sedentary women, a modest program of a widely acceptable form of exercise, brisk walking, can provoke an increase in this sensitive index of bone condition.

Commencing, continuing and stopping brisk walking: effects on bone mineral density, quantitative ultrasound of bone and markers of bone metabolism in postmenopausal women.

Abstract: Regular walking is associated with reduced risk of fracture and, in our recent randomized trial, reduced calcaneal bone loss relative to controls. The present follow-up study compared the effects on dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, ultrasound and biochemical indices of bone density and metabolism of (i) taking up (ii) continuing with and (iii) ceasing brisk walking for exercise. Subjects were 68 postmenopausal women aged 60–70 years. Twenty previously sedentary women remained sedentary (Sed/Sed) whilst 17 took up brisk walking (Sed/Walk). Fifteen women who had been walking regularly for 1 year returned to their former sedentary lifestyle (Walk/Sed), whilst 16 continued brisk walking over a second year (Walk/Walk). Bone mineral density (BMD), broadband ultrasonic attenuation (BUA), and biochemical markers of bone formation (serum osteocalcin, C-terminal propeptide of type I collagen and bone alkaline phosphatase) and resorption (urinary deoxypyridinoline) were assessed at baseline and 12 months. Women in the Sed/Walk and Walk/Walk groups completed a mean (SEM) of 16.9 (0.7) and 20.8 (1.2) min of brisk walking per day, respectively. Changes in BMD did not differ significantly between groups. Calcaneal BMD decreased significantly in Walk/Sed women [by 2.7 (1.4)%; p= 0.01] whilst changes in other groups were not significant. Calcaneal BUA increased significantly (p= 0.02) in Sed/Walk women [by 7.4 (3.3)%] relative to other groups. Urinary deoxypyridinoline increased over the year in the Sed/Sed group but there were no significant changes in biochemical markers in other groups. Women taking up brisk walking for exercise showed no change in BMD but a significant increase in calcaneal BUA. There was no significant effect on BMD or BUA of continuing brisk walking but calcaneal BMD declined on ceasing brisk walking. Bone resorption increased in sedentary women but not exercisers, suggesting the effect on exercise on bone in postmenopausal women could be through amelioration of this increased turnover.

Ultrasound and dual X-ray absorptiometry measurement of the calcaneus: Influence of region of interest location

Ultrasound measurements of the calcaneus are related to incidence of osteoporotic fracture. Such measurements are generally made at fixed coordinates relative to a footplate. This study compares measurements at an anatomically located region of interest (ROIanat) and at fixed coordinates (ROIfixed), with bone mineral density measurements, in 84 postmenopausal women. Bone mineral density (BMD) was assessed using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry at both ROIs as well as at lumbar spine and femoral neck. Broadband ultrasound attenuation and velocity of sound were measured using a CUBA system at ROIanat and ROIfixed. Additionally, broadband ultrasound attenuation at ROIfixed was measured using a Walker Sonix instrument. Mean bone mineral density, broadband ultrasound attenuation and velocity of sound did not differ significantly between ROIfixed and ROIanat, although broadband ultrasound attenuation by Walker Sonix (81.4±14.6 dBMHz-1) was significantly (P<0.001) greater than that by CUBA (63.7±14.2 dBMHz-1). The relationship between broadband ultrasound attenuation and BMD differed significantly between the 2 ROIs and the correlation of this relationship was significantly greater at ROIfixed than at ROIanat (r=0.74 versus 0.46, P<0.01). The differing relationship may reflect structural variation at different regions. ROI selection may thus be a possible confounding factor in ultrasound measurement.

Reliability and repeatability of 3-D body scanner (LASS) measurements compared to anthropometry

The Loughborough Anthropometric Shadow Scanner (LASS) digitizes the body, to give size and shape in three dimensions. After some manipulation of data, body measurements can be taken from the computerized scan. This paper compares LASS measurements with anthropometric measurements, and examines intra- and inter-observer differences of both techniques. LASS and anthropometric measurements were generally similar. Although there were small but significant (p < 0.05) differences at some sites, these differences were explained by difficulties in making horizontal tape measurements, and by differences in site location on LASS scans due to imperfect site markers. Standard errors of measurement due to intra-observer differences were generally smaller by LASS (1.1-5.3 mm) than anthropometry (2.0-7.2 mm); however, inter-observer differences were similar by both techniques (3.0-13.1 mm for anthropometry compared to 1.3-8.3 mm for LASS). Repeatability of 3-D measurements taken from computerized whole-body scans was no better than that from traditional anthropometric measurements; however, the scan data have a far greater utilization, for they provide information on body shapes, segmental volumes and surface areas as well as size.

Format for human body modelling from 3‐D body scanning

Presents a standard data format for describing and interpolating 3‐D human body shapes from data collected by a 3‐D body scanner. The body data were treated as a series of horizontal cross‐sections. Each cross‐section was described by 16 data points. The 3‐D surface can be calculated by interpolating between these sections. This procedure allowed editing and manipulation of raw scanned data, as well as substantial data reduction. Horizontal cross‐sections of the body were chosen to correspond to particular anatomical surface landmarks, rather than distances from a reference point. Hence, each data element described a particular anatomical location, irrespective of body shape and size. This feature allowed comparison and averaging of 3‐D shapes, greatly enhancing the application of 3‐D scanned data. The standard data format allows 3‐D scanned data to be transferred into CAD/CAM systems for automated garment design and manikin manufacture.

The Loughborough anthropometric shadow scanner (LASS).

There has been interest in the use of drawing frames and other devices to record the size and shape of the human body since Albrecht Dürers Vier Bücher von Manschlicher Proportion was published in 1528. Until recently, however, the methods used have been slow and laborious, mostly involving some degree of physical contact. This article describes a fully automated system which is capable of making such measurements quickly, accurately, and comprehensively.

Brisk walking improves endurance fitness without changing body fatness in previously sedentary women

SummaryThe purpose of this study was to examine the influence of brisk walking on endurance fitness and the amount and distribution of body fat in previously sedentary women. Twenty eight women [mean age (SEM): 44.9 (1.5) years] followed the walking programme for 1 year, whilst 16 acted as controls [age 44.4 (2.3) years]. Changes in endurance fitness were evaluated by measuring the oxygen uptake (

The distribution of subcutaneous and internal fat in man

\dot VO_2