Pål Kraft

Perceived difficulty in the theory of planned behaviour: perceived behavioural control or affective attitude?

A study was conducted to explore (a) the dimensional structure of perceived behavioural control (PBC), (b) the conceptual basis of perceived difficulty items, and (c) how PBC components and instrumental and affective attitudes, respectively, relate to intention and behaviour. The material stemmed from a two-wave study of Norwegian graduate students (N = 227 for the prediction of intention and N = 110 for the prediction of behaviour). Data were analysed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and multiple regression by the application of structural equation modelling (SEM). CFA suggested that PBC could be conceived of as consisting of three separate but interrelated factors (perceived control, perceived confidence and perceived difficulty), or as two separate but interrelated factors representing self-efficacy (measured by perceived difficulty and perceived confidence or by just perceived confidence) and perceived control. However, the perceived difficulty items also overlapped substantially with affective attitude. Perceived confidence was a strong predictor of exercise intention but not of recycling intention. Perceived control, however, was a strong predictor of recycling intention but not exercise intention. Affective attitudes but not instrumental attitudes were identified as substantial predictors of intentions. The findings suggest that at least under some circumstances it may be inadequate to measure PBC by means of perceived difficulty. One possible consequence may be that the role of PBC as a predictor of intention is somewhat overestimated, whereas the role of (affective) attitude may be similarly underestimated.

Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates

Abstract Two studies examine the psychometric properties and socio-demographic correlates of the General Self-efficacy Scale (GSE) (Jerusalem and Schwarzer, 1986; Schwarzer, 1993). Further, the relationship between GSE and different types of task-specific self-efficacy (TSSE) was studied. Data from 421 Norwegian daily smokers aged 16–79 and 1576 Norwegian 18-year-olds were applied. The results showed that the factor structure, internal consistency and test-retest reliability of GSE were satisfactory. The construct validity of GSE was also supported. The results indicated the existence of complex relationships between GSE and gender, age and education, respectively. Positive correlations were found between GSE and smoking specific self-efficacy (SSSE) and injury risk related self-efficacy (IRSE), respectively. However, GSE did not predict the intention to try to stop smoking while SSSE did. The relationship between GSE and TSSE was addressed with reference to different types of attribution and the possibility that the value of different efficacy experiences may vary between people and throughout the lifecourse.

A Digital Smoking Cessation Program Delivered Through Internet and Cell Phone Without Nicotine Replacement (Happy Ending): Randomized Controlled Trial

Background Happy Ending (HE) is an intense 1-year smoking cessation program delivered via the Internet and cell phone. HE consists of more than 400 contacts by email, Web pages, interactive voice response, and short message service technology. HE includes a craving helpline and a relapse prevention system, providing just-in-time therapy. All the components of the program are fully automated. Objective The objectives were to describe the rationale for the design of HE, to assess the 12-month efficacy of HE in a sample of smokers willing to attempt to quit without the use of nicotine replacement therapy, and to explore the potential effect of HE on coping planning and self-efficacy (prior to quitting) and whether coping planning and self-efficacy mediate treatment effect. Methods A two-arm randomized controlled trial was used. Subjects were recruited via Internet advertisements and randomly assigned to condition. Inclusion criteria were willingness to quit on a prescribed day without using nicotine replacement and being aged 18 years or older. The intervention group received HE, and the control group received a 44-page self-help booklet. Abstinence was defined as “not even a puff of smoke, for the last seven days” and was assessed by means of Internet surveys or telephone interviews 1, 3, 6, and 12 months postcessation. The main outcome was repeated point abstinence (ie, abstinence at all four time points). Coping planning and self-efficacy were measured at baseline and at the end of the preparation phase (ie, after 2 weeks of treatment, but prior to cessation day). Results A total of 290 participants received either the HE intervention (n=144) or the control booklet (n=146). Using intent-to-treat analysis, participants in the intervention group reported clinically and statistically significantly higher repeated point abstinence rates than control participants (20% versus 7%, odds ratio [OR] = 3.43, 95% CI = 1.60-7.34, P = .002). Although no differences were observed at baseline, by the end of the preparation phase, significantly higher levels of coping planning (t 261 = 3.07, P = .002) and precessation self-efficacy (t 261 = 2.63, P = .01) were observed in the intervention group compared with the control group. However, neither coping planning nor self-efficacy mediated long-term treatment effect. For point abstinence 1 month after quitting, however, coping planning and self-efficacy showed a partial mediation of the treatment effect. Conclusions This 12-month trial documents a long-term treatment effect of a fully automated smoking cessation intervention without the use of nicotine replacement therapy. The study adds to the promise of using digital media in supporting behavior change.

Predicting the intention to quit smoking and quitting behaviour: extending the theory of planned behaviour.

OBJECTIVES The present study examined the ability of the TPB to predict the intention to quit smoking and quitting behaviour. In addition, the predictive power of future orientation, number of cigarettes smoked, planning, past behaviour and the interactions between intention and other predictors was examined. MATERIAL AND METHODS The data were derived from a longitudinal survey among 103 daily smoking students at the University of Oslo (mean age 24.6 years, mean number of years of smoking = 8 years). These data were collected by means of self-administered questionnaires at T1 (October 2003) and at T2 (February 2004) in terms of recording actual quitting. RESULTS The TPB components accounted for 30% of the variance in quitting intentions, and affective attitude and descriptive norm emerged as the strongest predictors of quitting intention. Ordinal regression analysis showed that intention was a borderline significant predictor of subsequent quitting behaviour, while the impact of PBC was non-significant (model 1). The inclusion of the additional variables improved the fit of the model, with number of cigarettes and planning appearing as significant predictors of behaviour (model 2). As predicted, there was a significant interaction between perceived control and intentions on quitting (model 3). Nagelkerke R(2) increased from .07 in model 1 to .54 in model 2, and finally to .58 in model 3. CONCLUSIONS The results indicate that affective attitude and descriptive norm play a more crucial role than the other TPB predictors in motivating smokers to quit. The results also indicate that self-regulatory strategies are important in relation to addictive behaviours.

Stability in Depressed Mood in Adolescence: Results from a 6-Year Longitudinal Panel Study

A 6-year longitudinal panel study investigated the absolute and relative stability in depressed mood throughout adolescence by reporting data from a sample of 538 adolescents between 13 and 19 years of age. Results revealed the following. (1) Girls had on average higher depressed mood scores than boys at all ages. (2) Among boys there were no substantial changes in depressed mood mean scores, while among girls there was a slight tendency of a curvilinear trend, with a peak level reached in midadolescence. (3) There was a tendency for adolescents to retain their relative level in depressed mood, most pronounced for a period of 4 years, from age 15 to age 19 years. (4) Depressed mood was most stable in a subgroup of adolescents who had high initial depressed mood scores. (5) By applying structural equation modeling, it was shown that the stable (“trait”) component of depressed mood increased in importance with increasing age, while the temporal (“state”) component decreased with increased age.

The Relationship between Body Image and Depressed Mood in Adolescence: A 5-year Longitudinal Panel Study

Much research interest has been devoted to reveal the psychosocial processes associated with the development of depressive symptoms during adolescence. One of the important factors that has been studied is body image. In a 5-year longitudinal investigation, we revealed and discussed the relationship between body image and depressed mood in a cohort of adolescents at ages 13, 15 and 18. Girls reported on average higher depressed mood levels and more negative body image than boys at all ages. However, the correlations between the variables were nearly as strong for boys as for girls. Structural equation modelling revealed that body image predicted change in depressed mood both for boys and girls, but at different ages. In contrast, we did not find any support for the existence of causal effects of depressed mood upon body image.

Control Constructs: Do They Mediate the Relation between Educational Attainment and Health Behaviour?

Health promoting behaviours seem to be more prevalent among people with higher socio-economic status (SES). The main purpose of this article was to study (a) the relationship between education (as a dimension of SES) and intention and health behaviour (fruit/vegetable consumption), (b) the relationship between education and control conceptualizations (health locus of control (HLC), responseefficacy and self-efficacy) and (c) to what extent the relationship between education and intention/health behaviour (fruit/vegetable consumption) was mediated through different control beliefs. The results showed that women with higher education had higher intentions to consume fruit/vegetables and consumed fruit/vegetables more frequently. Higher education was associated with higher selfefficacy and response-efficacy beliefs and less belief in HLCchance. These control beliefs partly mediated the education–intention/behaviour relationship.

Expanding the theory of planned behaviour: the role of social norms and group identification.

The purposes of the study were twofold. First, to explore the predictive power of the descriptive and group norms, when the effect of subjective norm had already been accounted for. Second, to investigate to what extent perceived group norm of a behaviourally relevant reference group would predict the intention to use contraception among those who identified strongly with the relevant reference group. The empirical data were generated from a sample of 354 sexually active female adolescents living in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The results revealed that subjective (injunctive) norm was the most important predictor of contraceptive intentions (β = .33, p<.001). In addition, descriptive norms (β = .20, p <.001) and (unexpectedly) group norm (β = .11, p <.035) exerted significant main effects upon intention. The study indicated that contraceptive intentions in Ethiopian adolescent girls were influenced more by ‘social’ (injunctive, descriptive) than ‘personal’ considerations (attitudes: β = .20, p <.001, and; PBC: β = .17, p<.001). However, none of the interaction terms between group identification and social influence variables were significant. Furthermore, collective-self did not emerge to have either a direct effect upon intention, or a moderation effect upon the social norms-intention relationships (as expected).

Predicting intended contraception in a sample of ethiopian female adolescents: The validity of the theory of planned behavior

Abstract The purposes of the study were threefold. First, to test the validity of Ajzens (1991) theory of planned behavior (TPB) in predicting intended contraception in the Ethiopian cultural setting. Second, to examine the additional predictive roles of past behavior and perceived pregnancy risk in the TPB model. Third, to identify the salient contraceptive beliefs influencing intended contraception. Data stemmed from a community sample of 354 sexually active female adolescents aged 15 to 19 years. The findings of the study supported TPB as a robust model in Ethiopian cultural setting, with subjective norm being the strongest predictor of intended contraception. In addition, both past contraceptive behavior and perceived pregnancy risk demonstrated to have significant contributions in predicting intention over and above that explained by attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control elements of the TPB. Moreover, the study also identified salient and important contraceptive beliefs that need to be addressed in family life education and counseling programs designed for adolescents and the youth.

The dark side of leisure: obsessive passion and its covariates and outcomes

The present paper challenges the notion that engagement in leisure activities is exclusively conducive to well‐being. By applying the Dualistic Model of Passion in a leisure context on 467 participants, the measurement of obsessive passion for a leisure activity was related to indicators of ill‐being and unrelated to general well‐being. In Study 1, obsessive passion for a leisure activity was associated with activity addiction, escapism engagement, and intrapersonal conflicts. In Study 2, obsessive passion was negatively related to basic need satisfaction in activity engagement as well as positively related to negative affective outcomes from activity engagement. We argue that the present findings may lead towards a broader understanding of motivation and outcomes in leisure activities.