Pamela Dodrill

Features of feeding difficulty in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Abstract Parents of children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) commonly report concerns regarding feeding difficulties and poor nutrition. Feeding difficulties, in the form of undesirable mealtime behaviours and/or skill deficits, can cause parental concern and impact on family dynamics. Poor nutrition can have an impact on development and health outcomes. The purpose of this paper was to review recent research regarding feeding difficulties in children with ASD, in order to describe: (1) the most frequently reported undesirable mealtime behaviours and skill deficits; and (2) dietary intake and weight patterns as markers of nutrition. While the ASD population is a somewhat heterogeneous group, this literature review of 44 research studies identified a number of common issues for these children. Restricted dietary variety, food neophobia, food refusal, limiting diet based on texture, and a propensity towards being overweight were frequently reported. Gaining a better understanding of the common features of feeding difficulties experienced by children with ASD will assist in directing intervention studies. Findings from such studies have the potential to enhance developmental and nutritional outcomes for this group. Well-designed longitudinal research would be valuable in monitoring the impact of feeding difficulties for these children as they age.

Feeding Difficulties in Preterm Infants

Preterm infants often display difficulty establishing oral feeding in the weeks following birth. This article aims to provide an overview of the literature investigating the development of feeding skills in preterm infants, as well as of interventions aimed at assisting preterm infants to develop their feeding skills. Available research suggests that preterm infants born at a lower gestational age and/or with a greater degree of morbidity are most at risk of early feeding difficulties. Respiratory disease was identified as a particular risk factor. Mechanisms for feeding difficulty identified in the literature include immature or dysfunctional sucking skills and poor suck–swallow–breath coordination. Available evidence provides some support for therapy interventions aimed at improving feeding skills, as well as the use of restricted milk flow to assist with maintaining appropriate ventilation during feeds. Further research is needed to confirm these findings, as well as to answer remaining clinical questions.

Liquid barium is not representative of infant formula: characterisation of rheological and material properties

Infants experiencing dysphagia may undergo a videofluoroscopic swallow study (VFSS) to assess radiologically their coordination for sucking, swallowing, and breathing. No studies known to these authors have investigated whether the liquids used during infant radiological procedures are representative of liquids routinely fed to infants (e.g., formula). This study used an Advanced Rheometric Expansion System (ARES) strain-controlled rheometer to compare prethickened antiregurgitation formula, regular (thin) infant formula, and two types of regular infant formula, hand-thickened with a thickening agent and with liquid Polibar™ (barium-impregnated liquid). The viscosity, density, and yield stress of all samples were determined. Heated versus cooled liquids were compared. Results showed a significant difference in all rheological and material property parameters among the barium-impregnated liquids and the thickened and unthickened infant formula. This finding has important implications for the interpretation of the radiological results and subsequent clinical recommendations.

Current management of transitional feeding issues in preterm neonates born in Queensland, Australia.

BACKGROUND Many preterm neonates display difficulty establishing suck-feeding competence in the weeks following birth. Ineffective management of transitional feeding issues may cause patient complications, and can contribute to increased length of stay. AIMS Given that many neonatal nurseries appear to vary in their neonatal feeding management practices, the aim of this study was to investigate and document the routine level of support and intervention currently provided for preterm neonates with transitional feeding issues across the various level II (special care) nurseries (SCNs) in Queensland, Australia. METHODS A questionnaire was mailed to all Queensland SCNs in 2005 (n=36). The questionnaire contained a series of closed-choice and short-answer questions designed to obtain information from each SCN regarding their current practices for managing transitional feeding issues in preterm neonates. Results were confirmed during a follow-up phone call. RESULTS Responses were obtained from 29 SCNs (80.6%). None of these nurseries reported having any formal, written policies regarding the management of transitional feeding issues in preterm neonates. Wide variations were reported in relation to the suck-feeding assessments and interventions used by staff within the various SCNs. Of the 29 nurseries, 4 (13.8%) reported using checklists or assessments to judge readiness for suck-feeds, and 5 (17.2%) reported using pulse oximetry to judge tolerance of suck-feeding attempts. Eighteen SCNs (62.1%) reported offering some form of active intervention to assist neonates with transitional feeding issues, with the most common intervention techniques reported being non-nutritive sucking during tube feeds, pre-feeding oral stimulation, and actively pacing suck-feeds. Twenty-two SCNs (75.4%) reported having access to a lactation consultant to assist mothers with breastfeeding issues. CONCLUSIONS Differences were reported in the routine management of transitional feeding issues in preterm neonates across the various SCNs in Queensland. It is suggested that evidence based guidelines need to be developed, and that, in order to do this, further research studies are required to determine current best practice, as well as to answer remaining questions.

Growth patterns in preterm infants born appropriate for gestational age.

Aim:  This study aimed to document the growth patterns of a contemporary cohort of preterm infants born appropriate for gestational age (AGA). It was hypothesised that preterm AGA (PT‐AGA) infants would display poorer growth than full‐term AGA (FT‐AGA) infants.

Efficacy of interventions to improve feeding difficulties in children with autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review and meta‐analysis

BACKGROUND Feeding difficulties are relatively common in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), but current evidence for their treatment is limited. This review systematically identifies, reviews and analyses the evidence for intervention in young children with ASD and feeding difficulties. METHODS A comprehensive search strategy was used to identify studies from January 2000 to October 2013. Studies were included if they described interventions where the goal was to increase desirable eating behaviours or decrease undesirable eating behaviours using an experimental design, including single-subject research methodology. Studies were reviewed for descriptive information, and research quality was appraised using a formal checklist. Individual study findings were compared using Improvement Rate Difference (IRD), a method for calculating effect size in single-subject research. RESULTS Overall, 23 papers were included. All studies reviewed had five or fewer participants, and reported on operant conditioning style intervention approaches, where the child is prompted to perform an action, and receives a contingent response. Where quality measures were not met, it was primarily due to lack of detail provided for the purposes of replication, or failure to meet social validity criteria. Meta-analysis indicated a medium-large effect size [mean = 0.69, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.60 to 0.79] when the outcome measured was an increase in desirable behaviours (e.g. consuming food), but a small-negligible effect size (mean = 0.39, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.60) when the outcome measured was a decrease in undesirable mealtime behaviours (e.g. tantrums). Only a small proportion of studies reported outcomes in terms of increased dietary variety rather than volume of food consumed. CONCLUSIONS The reviewed literature consisted primarily of low-level evidence. Favourable intervention outcomes were observed in terms of increasing volume, but not necessarily variety of foods consumed in young children with ASD and feeding difficulties. Further research in the form of prospective randomized trials to further demonstrate experimental effect in this area is required.

Swallowing dysfunction among patients with laryngeal cleft: More than just aspiration?

BACKGROUND The Modified Barium Swallow (MBS) is the most widely utilized instrumental assessment of swallowing disorders in children; however, the exact role in the evaluation of laryngeal clefts remains controversial. METHODS This study was an IRB-approved retrospective review on patients diagnosed with laryngeal cleft from 2002 to 2014. The objective was to describe the range of swallowing dysfunction that may be present in patients with laryngeal clefts both pre- and post-intervention (conservative management versus surgery). A speech-language pathologist reviewed MBS studies and medical records to determine Penetration-Aspiration Scale (PAS) and Functional Oral Intake Scale (FOIS) scores. RESULTS One hundred seventy-five patients who underwent laryngeal cleft repair during the study period (type 1, n=111; type 2, n=54; type 3, n=9; type 4, n=1) were included. Fifty patients who were managed conservatively (type 1) were also included. Swallowing impairment was demonstrated in all phases of swallowing for all cleft types. Oral phase impairment ranged from 27-67% pre-intervention to 19-75% post-intervention, triggering impairment from 24-42% pre-intervention to 24-75% post-intervention, and pharyngeal phase impairment (laryngeal penetration and aspiration) from 57-100% pre-intervention to 40-100% post-intervention. Laryngeal penetration and aspiration on thin and thick liquids, silent aspiration, PAS, and FOIS scores are reported. Significant improvements in swallowing function (p<0.05) were documented in all of the conservatively and surgically managed sub-groups. CONCLUSIONS The MBS study is a useful tool for evaluating swallowing function in patients with laryngeal cleft and provides information beyond the lack or presence of aspiration. Understanding impairments in all phases of swallowing may be beneficial for perioperative management.

Multidisciplinary intervention for childhood feeding difficulties.

Objective: The aim of the study was to determine whether operant conditioning (OC) or systematic desensitization (SysD) intervention resulted in more improvements in dietary variety/intake, and more reductions in difficult mealtime behaviors. Methods: Children 2 to 6 years with autism spectrum disorder or with a nonmedically complex history were recruited. Feeding difficulties were confirmed based on clinical assessment. Participants were randomized to receive 10 OC or SysD sessions (parents could opt for intervention once per week, or intensively within a week). Immersive parent education was delivered across both arms. A 3-month review was provided to measure outcomes postintervention. Results: In total, 68 participants (87%) completed the study. There were no significant differences in outcome measures between the OC and SysD intervention groups from baseline to 3-month review. When the data were combined across both groups, however, significant improvements in primary outcome measures were observed (P < 0.05). Although not statistically significant, it was considered clinically significant that participants in the OC arm demonstrated more increases in dietary variety (mean difference 3.3 foods, 95% confidence interval −0.1 to 6.8, P = 0.06) compared with the SysD arm. There were limited differences in response observed between the autism spectrum disorder and nonmedically complex history groups, and the intensive and weekly arms. Conclusions: Favorable results were observed regardless of intervention, intensity, or etiological group. Results suggest that, when delivered to a protocol by experienced therapists and coupled with parent education, these 2 intervention approaches are effective. Further research is required in exploring these interventions across other subgroups, and examining outcomes for longer periods.

A survey of practice for clinicians working with children with autism spectrum disorders and feeding difficulties

Abstract The aim of this study was to document information from allied health clinicians about children on their caseload with autism spectrum disorders and feeding difficulties. An electronic survey was disseminated to clinicians working with this group around Australia, where 150 responses were returned and 96 were able to be analysed. Variability in responses was observed for service delivery models, frequency of input, referral reasons, and intervention choices. The majority of respondents identified limited-to-average knowledge of feeding therapy options for this population. Clinician confidence was significantly correlated with perceived therapy success. Results of the survey suggest a need for clinical guidelines in the area to direct practice. Low levels of clinician confidence and perceived therapy success also highlight a need for ongoing research and training.

Developing clinical skills in paediatric dysphagia management using human patient simulation (HPS)

Abstract Purpose: The use of simulated learning environments to develop clinical skills is gaining momentum in speech-language pathology training programs. The aim of the current study was to examine the benefits of adding Human Patient Simulation (HPS) into the university curriculum in the area of paediatric dysphagia. Method: University students enrolled in a mandatory dysphagia course (n = 29) completed two, 2-hour HPS scenarios: (a) performing a clinical feeding assessment with a medically complex infant; and (b) conducting a clinical swallow examination (CSE) with a child with a tracheostomy. Scenarios covered technical and non-technical skills in paediatric dysphagia management. Surveys relating to students’ perceived knowledge, skills, confidence and levels of anxiety were conducted: (a) pre-lectures; (b) post-lectures, but pre-HPS; and (c) post-HPS. A fourth survey was completed following clinical placements with real clients. Result: Results demonstrate significant additive value in knowledge, skills and confidence obtained through HPS. Anxiety about working clinically reduced following HPS. Students rated simulation as very useful in preparing for clinical practice. Post-clinic, students indicated that HPS was an important component in their preparation to work as a clinician. Conclusion: This trial supports the benefits of incorporating HPS as part of clinical preparation for paediatric dysphagia management.