Pamela Sadler

Promoting Success or Preventing Failure: Cultural Differences in Motivation by Positive and Negative Role Models:

In two studies, cross-cultural differences in reactions to positive and negative role models were examined. The authors predicted that individuals from collectivistic cultures, who have a stronger prevention orientation, would be most motivated by negative role models, who highlight a strategy of avoiding failure; individuals from individualistic cultures, who have a stronger promotion focus, would be most motivated by positive role models, who highlight a strategy of pursuing success. In Study 1, the authors examined participants’ reported preferences for positive and negative role models. Asian Canadian participants reported finding negative models more motivating than did European Canadians; self-construals and regulatory focus mediated cultural differences in reactions to role models. In Study 2, the authors examined the impact of role models on the academic motivation of Asian Canadian and European Canadian participants. Asian Canadians were motivated only by a negative model, and European Canadians were motivated only by a positive model.

Self-Efficacy, Values, and Complementarity in Dyadic Interactions: Integrating Interpersonal and Social-Cognitive Theory

Dyadic interactions were analyzed using constructs from social-cognitive theory (self-efficacy and subjective values) and interpersonal theory (interpersonal circumplex [IPC] and complementarity). In Study 1, the authors developed a measure of efficacy for interpersonal actions associated with each IPC region—the Circumplex Scales of Interpersonal Efficacy (CSIE). In Study 2, the authors used the CSIE and the Circumplex Scales of Interpersonal Values (which assesses the subjective value of interpersonal events associated with each IPC region) to predict the dominance expressed and satisfaction experienced by members of 101 same-sex dyads trying to solve a murder mystery. Structural equation modeling analyses supported both social-cognitive and interpersonal theory. A social-cognitive person-variable (dominance efficacy) and an interpersonal dyadic-variable (reciprocity) together predicted dominant behaviors. Likewise, both a social-cognitive variable (friendliness values) and an interpersonal variable (correspondence of friendliness efficacy) predicted satisfaction. Finally, both shared performance outcomes and dynamic interpersonal processes predicted convergence of collective efficacy beliefs within dyads.

Feeling better about doing worse: social comparisons within romantic relationships.

The authors examined the role of closeness between self and partner in determining the impact of social comparisons within intimate relationships. To the extent that ones partner is a central aspect of ones identity, one may be able to restore ones positive self-regard following an upward comparison with the partner by turning to the relationship as a self-affirmational resource. Studies 1 and 2 examined reactions to imagined comparisons; Studies 3 and 4 examined reactions to actual comparison feedback. Across studies, closeness moderated the impact of upward comparisons with the partner; that is, higher closeness participants responded to a more successful partner by focusing on their relationship-related strengths. However, closeness did not moderate the impact of downward comparisons with the partner.

On reintegrating dissociated theories : Comment on Kirsch and Lynn (1998)

In response to I. Kirsch and S.J. Lynns (1998) review of dissociation theories of hypnosis, the authors discuss the role of theory in current hypnosis research. In addition, they show how the 2 dissociation theories, as well as an alternative sociocognitive theory, can be integrated into a dual-system model of action (D.A. Norman & T. Shallice, 1986). Finally, they argue that the essence of dissociation theory does not necessarily rely on special mechanisms, such as the amnesic barrier and hidden observer, which Kirsch and Lynn critiqued.

Capturing the Stream of Behavior: A Computer-Joystick Method for Coding Interpersonal Behavior Continuously Over Time

The present article advances a joystick-based methodology for recording and studying time-dependent patterns as continuous phenomena. It is particularly useful for capturing moment-to-moment changes with regard to a state space defined by two orthogonal axes, as in studies involving the interpersonal circumplex or the mood circumplex. A joystick monitoring program (free, downloadable, executable software available at www.wlu.ca/science/psadler) is used. While watching a recorded interaction displayed on the computer screen, an observer moves the joystick to indicate a target person’s moment-to-moment behavior, and the X–Y coordinates are written frequently (e.g., twice per second) to a data file. The authors describe the software and the nature of the data obtained. The authors also suggest possible applications, such as studying subtle patterns of interpersonal behavior during interactions and studying individual differences in the perception of moment-to-moment variations in a target person’s affect.

Four decades of group hypnosis scales: What does item-response theory tell us about what we've been measuring?

To overcome problems with previous psychometric approaches to hypnosis scales, the authors applied full-information factor analysis, based on multidimensional item-response theory (IRT), to a 39-year sample of 11,517 records of the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A (HGSHS:A). They also performed a comparable analysis on the standardization sample of the Waterloo-Stanford Group C Scale (WSGC). The HGSHS:A emerges as two-factored, whereas the WSGC more closely approaches unidimensionality. The HGSHS:A factor structure and means show very little change over 4 decades. However, IRT-based item analysis on the HGSHS:A indicates that problems such as “pseudoguessing” on 2 items limit the quality of the item set. The authors propose alternative substantive interpretations of the traits that may underlie the two-factor structure.

Does the More Vivid Imagery of High Hypnotizables Depend on Greater Cognitive Effort? A Test of Dissociation and Social-Cognitive Theories of Hypnosis

Abstract In an investigation of the role of cognitive effort in hypnotic responding, high and low hypnotizable participants produced emotionally neutral imagery in response to effortful versus effortless hypnotic suggestions. Heart-rate increase served as an objective index of cognitive effort, and subjective ratings of imagery vividness, absorption, effort, and control were collected. Compared to lows, high hypnotizable participants experienced their imagery as more vivid and absorbing, yet their heart rates indicated no higher level of cognitive effort than lows. Compared to effortless wording, effortful wording of suggestions increased cognitive effort in lows, as indexed by heart-rate increase, but had no effect on the effort expended by highs. Ratings of subjective control were strongly correlated with subjective effort for lows but unrelated for highs. These results support the dissociated-control theory of hypnosis rather than the dissociated-experience or social-cognitive theories.

Some Polite Applause for the 2003 APA Division 30 Definition of Hypnosis

Abstract The authors argue that the new definition of hypnosis by Division 30 of the American Psy chological Association contains questionable information about the role of imagination in hypnosis, about the use versus omission of the word hypnosis in inductions, and about the nature of individual differences and their relation to the standardized scales. In addition, the definition appears to conflate formal and exemplar-based types of definition, and it does not seem particularly well-tuned to the interests of lay persons. The authors advance some suggestions for future definitional efforts.

Tracing the Interpersonal Web of Psychopathology: Dyadic Data Analysis Methods for Clinical Researchers

Recent advances in dyadic data analysis techniques, which treat the dyad, rather than the individual, as the unit of analysis, offer great potential for clinical researchers studying psychopathology. Accordingly, the present article provides readers with a foundation for understanding how the web of interpersonal processes surrounding psychopathology can be modeled and analyzed. The authors start by describing why the analysis of dyadic behaviour may be particularly important for clinical researchers and how issues of dependence that lie at the heart of dyadic data may be productively studied. Next, they describe design issues to consider when studying the interactions of dyads, as well as different kinds of outcome and predictor variables and their data-analytic implications. They introduce the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM), and explain in detail how to estimate it using structural equation modeling (SEM) for both distinguishable and indistinguishable dyads. Extensions of the basic APIM to allow for moderation and mediation, as well as alternative dyadic models involving dyadic latent variables are also covered. Toward the end of the article, the authors describe various approaches for incorporating psychopathology into dyadic SEMs and provide a list of basic questions for clinical researchers to consider when setting up a dyadic model for data analysis.

Side effects can enhance treatment response through expectancy effects: An experimental analgesic randomized controlled trial

Abstract In randomized controlled trials, medication side effects may lead to beliefs that one is receiving the active intervention and enhance active treatment responses, thereby increasing drug–placebo differences. We tested these hypotheses with an experimental double-blind randomized controlled trial of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug with and without the addition of atropine to induce side effects. One hundred healthy volunteers were told they would be randomized to either combined analgesics that might produce dry mouth or inert placebos. In reality, they were randomized double blind, double-dummy to 1 of the 4 conditions: (1) 100 mg diclofenac + 1.2 mg atropine, (2) placebo + 1.2 mg atropine, (3) 100 mg diclofenac + placebo, or (4) placebo + placebo, and tested with heat-induced pain. Groups did not differ significantly in demographics, temperature producing moderate pain, state anxiety, or depression. Analgesia was observed in all groups; there was a significant interaction between diclofenac and atropine, without main effects. Diclofenac alone was not better than double-placebo. The addition of atropine increased pain relief more than 3-fold among participants given diclofenac (d = 0.77), but did not enhance the response to placebo (d = 0.09). A chain of mediation analysis demonstrated that the addition of atropine increased dry mouth symptoms, which increased beliefs that one had received the active medication, which, in turn, increased analgesia. In addition to this indirect effect of atropine on analgesia (via dry mouth and beliefs), analyses suggest that among those who received diclofenac, atropine directly increased analgesia. This possible synergistic effect between diclofenac and atropine might warrant future research.