Panteleimon Ekkekakis

The Pleasure and Displeasure People Feel When they Exercise at Different Intensities Decennial Update and Progress towards a Tripartite Rationale for Exercise Intensity Prescription

The public health problem of physical inactivity has proven resistant to research efforts aimed at elucidating its causes and interventions designed to alter its course. Thus, in most industrialized countries, the majority of the population is physically inactive or inadequately active. Most theoretical models of exercise behaviour assume that the decision to engage in exercise is based on cognitive factors (e.g. weighing pros and cons, appraising personal capabilities, evaluating sources of support). Another, still-under-appreciated, possibility is that these decisions are influenced by affective variables, such as whether previous exercise experiences were associated with pleasure or displeasure. This review examines 33 articles published from 1999 to 2009 on the relationship between exercise intensity and affective responses. Unlike 31 studies that were published until 1998 and were examined in a 1999 review, these more recent studies have provided evidence of a relation between the intensity of exercise and affective responses. Pleasure is reduced mainly above the ventilatory or lactate threshold or the onset of blood lactate accumulation. There are pleasant changes at sub-threshold intensities for most individuals, large inter-individual variability close to the ventilatory or lactate threshold and homogeneously negative changes at supra-threshold intensities. When the intensity is self-selected, rather than imposed, it appears to foster greater tolerance to higher intensity levels. The evidence of a doseresponse relation between exercise intensity and affect sets the stage for a reconsideration of the rationale behind current guidelines for exercise intensity prescription. Besides effectiveness and safety, it is becoming increasingly clear that the guidelines should take into account whether a certain level of exercise intensity would be likely to cause increases or decreases in pleasure.

Acute aerobic exercise and affect: current status, problems and prospects regarding dose-response.

AbstractOne of the assumptions underlying recent physical activity recommendations is that lower doses of activity (i.e. intensity and duration) are more enjoyable for the average person, thus leading to higher involvement and adherence rates. However, the veracity of this hypothesis can be questioned, since little is actually known regarding the association between activity doses and affective responses. The few preliminary attempts at the conceptual delineation of the dose-response relationship, all centred around an ‘inverted-U’notion, are reviewed and criticised as lacking empirical foundation. Available meta-analyses, as well as the empirical literature on the role of exercise intensity and duration, are examined.Increased intensity appears to be associated with reduced positivity of affect during and immediately following an exercise bout. Intensity effects appear to be attenuated during recovery. Fitness and training status appear to become significant mediators of the exercise-affect relationship only at high intensities. With intensity being kept constant, different exercise bout durations have not been shown to have a differential impact on pre- to post-exercise affective changes. Recommendations for future research include: (i) a shift from categorical to dimensional conceptualisations and operationalisations of affect; (ii) the examination of psychological theories on the association between activation and affect (e.g. extraversion-introversion, sensation seeking, type A behaviour pattern and related self-evaluative tendencies, reversal theory, optimal stimulation theory, multidimensional activation theory and self-efficacy); (iii) the systematic and theory-based examination of in-task and post-exercise affective responses; (iv) the incorporation of the parameter of fitness and/or activity status in research designs; and (v) the re-evaluation of methods for selecting exercise intensity levels.

Exercise does not feel the same when you are overweight: the impact of self-selected and imposed intensity on affect and exertion

Objective:The lower rates of adherence to physical activity commonly found among overweight adults compared to their normal-weight counterparts might be due to the activity being experienced as more laborious and less pleasant, particularly when its intensity is prescribed (or imposed) rather than self-selected.Design:Within-subject design, with two 20-min sessions of treadmill exercise, one at self-selected speed and one at imposed speed, 10% higher than the self-selected.Subjects:A total of 16 overweight (BMI: 31 kg/m2) and 9 normal-weight (BMI: 22 kg/m2) previously sedentary but healthy women (age: 43 years).Measurements:Heart rate, oxygen uptake relative to body weight, and ratings of perceived exertion and pleasure–displeasure were assessed every 5 min.Results:The overweight women showed higher oxygen uptake and perceived exertion than the normal-weight women during both sessions. Although the two groups did not differ in ratings of pleasure–displeasure during the session at self-selected speed, only the overweight women showed a significant decline when the speed was imposed.Conclusions:Imposing a speed that is just 10% higher than what overweight women would have self-selected led to a significant decline in reported pleasure. Over time, this could diminish the enjoyment of and intrinsic motivation for physical activity, reducing adherence.

Pleasure and displeasure from the body: Perspectives from exercise

The affective changes associated with acute exercise have been studied extensively in exercise and health psychology, but not in affective psychology. This paper presents a summary of the relevant findings and a tentative theoretical model. According to this model, affective responses to exercise are jointly influenced by cognitive factors, such as physical self-efficacy, and interoceptive (e.g., muscular or respiratory) cues that reach the affective centres of the brain via subcortical routes. Furthermore, the balance between these two determinants is hypothesised to shift as a function of exercise intensity, with cognitive factors being dominant at low intensities and interoceptive cues gaining salience as intensity approaches the individuals functional limits and the maintenance of a physiological steady-state becomes impossible.

Variation and homogeneity in affective responses to physical activity of varying intensities: An alternative perspective on dose-response based on evolutionary considerations

A model for systematic changes in patterns of inter-individual variation in affective responses to physical activity of varying intensities is presented, as a conceptual alternative to the search for a global dose – response curve. It is theorized that trends towards universality will emerge in response to activities that are either generally adaptive, such as moderate walking, or generally maladaptive, such as strenuous running that requires anaerobic metabolism and precludes the maintenance of a physiological steady state. At the former intensity the dominant response will be pleasure, whereas at the latter intensity the dominant response will be displeasure. In contrast, affective responses will be highly variable, involving pleasure or displeasure, when the intensity of physical activity approximates the transition from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism, since activity performed at this intensity entails a trade-off between benefits and risks. Preliminary evidence in support of this model is presented, based on a reanalysis of data from a series of studies.

The affective beneficence of vigorous exercise revisited

OBJECTIVES: High exercise intensity may be associated with reduced adherence to exercise programmes, possibly because it is perceived as aversive. However, several authors have suggested that an intensity as high as 60% or 70% of maximal aerobic capacity (VO(2max)) is necessary for exercise to elicit positive affective changes. To elucidate this discrepancy, the affective responses to increasing levels of exercise intensity were examined. DESIGN: In total, 30 volunteers rated their affect every minute as they ran on a treadmill while the speed and grade were progressively increased. METHOD: The methodology was unique in three respects: (1) affect was assessed in terms of the dimensions of the circumplex model instead of distinct affective states, (2) affect was assessed repeatedly before, during, and after exercise, not only before and after, and (3) exercise intensity was standardized across participants in terms of metabolically comparable phases (beginning, ventilatory threshold, VO(2max)) instead of percentages of maximal capacity. RESULTS: Pre-to-post-exercise comparisons indicated affective benefits in the form of increased energetic arousal and decreased tense arousal. During exercise, however, affective valence deteriorated beyond the ventilatory threshold and until VO(2max), a trend that reversed itself instantaneously during cool-down. CONCLUSIONS: Exercise intensity that requires a transition to anaerobic metabolism can have a transient but substantial negative impact on affect and this may, in turn, reduce adherence to exercise programmes.

Walking in (Affective) Circles: Can Short Walks Enhance Affect?

Recent physical activity recommendations call for activities that are of moderate intensity and can be performed intermittently during the day, such as walking. These proclamations were based partly on the assumption that moderate activities are generally more enjoyable than physically demanding ones, and they are, therefore, also more likely to be continued over the long haul. However, little is actually known about the affective outcomes of short bouts of walking and extant findings are equivocal. Four experimental studies examined the affective responses associated with short (10- to 15-min) bouts of walking using a dimensional conceptual model of affect, namely, the circumplex. Results consistently showed that walking was associated with shifts toward increased activation and more positive affective valence. Recovery from walking for 10–15 min was associated with a return toward calmness and relaxation. This pattern was robust across different self-report measures of the circumplex affective dimensions, across ecological settings (field and laboratory), across time, and across samples.

The Relationship Between Exercise Intensity and Affective Responses Demystified: To Crack the 40-Year-Old Nut, Replace the 40-Year-Old Nutcracker!

BackgroundA causal chain linking exercise intensity, affective responses (e.g., pleasure–displeasure), and adherence has long been suspected as a contributor to the public health problem of physical inactivity. However, progress in the investigation of this model has been limited, mainly due to inconsistent findings on the first link between exercise intensity and affective responses.PurposeThe purpose was to reexamine the intensity–affect relationship using a new methodological platform.MethodsThirty young adults (14 women and 16 men) participated in 15-min treadmill exercise sessions below, at, and above their ventilatory threshold. The innovative elements were the following: (a) Affect was assessed in terms of the dimensions of the circumplex model; (b) assessments were made repeatedly during and after exercise; (c) patterns of interindividual variability were examined; (d) intensity was determined in relation to the ventilatory threshold; and (e) hypotheses derived from the dual-mode model were tested.ResultsIntensity did not influence the positive changes from pre- to post-exercise, but it did influence the responses during exercise, with the intensity that exceeded the ventilatory threshold eliciting significant and relatively homogeneous decreases in pleasure.ConclusionsExceeding the intensity of the ventilatory threshold appears to reduce pleasure, an effect that could negatively impact adherence.

Sleep duration and overweight among Australian children and adolescents

Aim: To examine the association between sleep and overweight and waist circumference (WC) in children and adolescents. Methods: Data were from a nationally representative sample of 6324 7–15‐y‐old males and females from the Australian Health and Fitness Survey. Associations between sleep duration and body mass index (BMI) and WC were examined by analysis of covariance, linear regression, and logistic regression. Results: In the total sample, there was a significant main effect across sleep‐duration categories (≤8 h, 8–9 h, 9–10 h, and ≥10 h) for BMI. Linear regression showed significant age, sex, age‐sleep, and age‐sex‐sleep interactions in the total sample. There was an inverse graded relationship between sleep and BMI and WC in boys. In boys, there was a 1.6–1.8 times greater odds of overweight for those who reported 8–9 h or 9–10 h of sleep compared to those reporting ≥10 h of sleep. For boys reporting ≤8 h of sleep, there was about 3.1 times greater odds of overweight compared to those reporting ≥10 h of sleep. In contrast, no significant associations between sleep and overweight were found in girls.

Analysis of the affect measurement conundrum in exercise psychology: I. Fundamental issues☆

Background and purpose: The measurement of affect in the context of exercise is a controversial issue. The purpose of this paper is to provide a critical review of the relevant literature and to outline a conceptual framework that will serve as the basis for subsequent analysis. Methods: Four issues are discussed: (a) the distinctions between emotions, moods, and affect; (b) the strengths and weaknesses of categorical and dimensional models for conceptualizing affective phenomena; (c) the notion of ‘exercise-specific’ affect; and (d) whether measurement should be based on a deductive or an inductive approach. Results and conclusions: Arguments are presented in favor of (a) targeting basic affect as the appropriate object of assessment at the present stage of knowledge development; (b) adopting dimensional models because of their broad and balanced scope; (c) critically reconsidering the notion of ‘exercise-specific’ affect; and (d) using deductive methods for measuring affect.